Eastern Kentucky University
Department of Music
Mus 555/755: Symphonic Literature
Summer Session I
M-F 9:30 - 11:00
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Introduction
Trends in history, not just music history, often present a dichotomy between
tradition and experimentation. There seems to be a constant tug between established,
accepted practices, and innovation. A general understanding of the style periods
forces us to corral common traits and collective attributes. As we move towards
the specifics we find an undercurrent of individual innovation and creative
flux. Consider how long humanity thought the world was flat? That collectively
accepted concept was changed by one individual's intuition, courage, and innovation.
Galileo Galilei
mathematically proved the world was round, and that in fact, the Earth traveled
around the sun - not vice versa. His radical theories were an affront to his
contemporaries. He was ridiculed by the church, nobility, and many of his fellow
scientists. Music history works much the same way. Consider the war of words
between Artusi and Monteverdi (and his brother) regarding whether or not lyrics
were the 'mistress' of music. Here the problem is made more difficult
since musical 'truths' rely on aesthetic reception, whereas scientific 'truths'
can be proven concretely. People can convincingly argue for and against the
validity of a musical work, Pierrot Lunaire for instance, but arguing
about whether or not the Earth is round would be absurd. The common means of
measuring the 'truth' in both music or science is by comparison. We learn by
measuring the differences and commonalties between musical periods, composers,
and their compositions.
Preface
There is often a difference between period style, the collective traits
of an era, and individual style. Generally speaking, period style reflects
established practices and traditions while individual style often pulls away
from those norms and constraints. This dichotomy means that some composers,
theorists, historians, and performers will work within the established period
style while others forge differing trends and practices. Some personalities
may vacillate between the two extremes depending upon the period of their life
or the particular compositional genre. Consider how Beethoven's style changed
between 1800 and 1825 - his addition of instruments (more horns, trombones,
timpani, etc.), expansion of range, elision between movements, cyclical thematic
treatment, length, multiple themes, new themes appearing in codas and developments,
developments themselves, and the final addition of the voice in the 9th symphony.
This course assumes a general understanding theory and history. The text has
a glossary to assist with idiomatic terms. I would highly encourage students
to look outside this text to gain a complete understanding of the trends and
personalities in question. Pertinent sources include:
- The New Grove Dictionary entry on Symphony,
Symphonic Poem, Transformation Theme, Idée Fixe, Sinfonia,
French Overture, and other specific topics and composers as needed.
- The Classical Style by Charles Rosen.
- Classic and Romantic Music by Fredrick Blüme.
- The Symphony and Symphonic Poem by Earl V.
Moore & Theodore Heger (excellent analytical treatment).
- A Modern Guide to Symphonic Music by Alfred
Frankenstein
- Nineteenth-Century Romanticism in Music by
Rey Longyear
- A History of Western Music by Donald J. Grout.
- Anthology of Music - The Symphony (sic) A Collection
of Complete Musical Examples Illustrating the History of Music edited
by Lothar Hoffman-Erbrecht.
- Studying Music History (sic) Learning, Reading,
and Writing about Music History and Literature
by David Poultney. A nifty overview, particularly for those taking comprehensive
exams,
Back to Top
Chapter 1
Antecedents of the Symphony
Baroque
- New forms appear in the Baroque: opera, oratorio, concerto, sonata, overture,
cantata, fugue, dance suite, etc.
- Texture: though the overall style was polyphonic, per the Renaissance, the
trend was toward homophony via solo song and Basso Continuo. Figured bass
points to a deemphasis of interior voices, a polarity between bass and soprano,
and a general trend toward harmonic thinking. The early Baroque/late Renaissance
5 voice texture gives way to a 3 voice texture by c.1700. The winds mostly
double the strings in early orchestral works. Virtuosic writing developed
over the period (Brandenburg concerti-JS Bach, the Four Seasons-Vivaldi, etc.)
for string, brass, and wind instruments.
- Harmony: Rameau's Treatise on Harmony (1722) largely points to practices
already in place. Homophony and tertian, and functional harmony are codependent
and lay the basis for the ensuing classical style.
- Rhythm: a single pervasive rhythm dominates many baroque movements resulting
in an "unending flow of pitches" (Stedman, p.3). Fortspinnungtypus
is the term coined to describe this type of melody. The Classic-Romantic interplay
of various note values is on the horizon.
- Melody: narrow rhythmic (moto) pallet, sequential/repetitive formulae (Fortspinnungtypus),
melodies with periodic construction (antecedent - consequence) are rare at
this point.
- Movements: Baroque movements work to project a single affect per the doctrine
of affections. Empfindsamer stil is fast approaching with C.P.E. Bach, and
the derivative Sturm und Drang style will follow in the late classic/early
romantic period. These latter aesthetic doctrines encourage the dramatic in
music, resulting in movements that convey a single affect or sequence of affects
(moods).
- Secular music surpasses sacred music for the first time in number and popularity.
Thus the reason, patronage, and need for music begins to shift from church
to court, from religious ceremony to entertainment, and by the end of the
period the target audience begins to include the general populace via publishing,
performance, and education. All these factors point to a growing, economically
empowered middleclass. Much of this new secular music is instrumental. Numerous
concerti, trio sonatas, fugues, dance suites, toccatas, fantasias, etc., point
to the growing importance of instrumental music as an independent genre separate
from vocal dramatic forms. Even though instrumental music has existed for
centuries, it is in the Baroque that this genre rises to the
foray.
- Instrument design is improving. The violin family soon replaces the viols.
Brass instruments become more common (horn, tpt., and trb.) along with winds
(fl., ob., and bass.,). The keyboard (harpsichord mainly but also organ) is
an important element in the Baroque large and small ensemble. It will drop
out of the texture only to return in the piano concerti of JC Bach. Composers
conducted from the keyboard for vocal works while the lead violinist conducted
instrumental works with bow and body motions. Large instrumental works were
the sole province of dramatic vocal forms and thus heard at church or the
opera house (sinfonias, overtures, and so forth). The conductor's role was
light at this point but growing in importance.
- New and improved instruments result in new musical forms (see above) like
the concerto grosso, solo concerto, solo sonata, trio sonata, French overture,
and Italian Sinfonia (seen-fo-neé-ah). The increased technical and
expressive qualities of the violin lead to more elaborate and demanding works.
- These ensembles were small by today's standards: 10 - 20 players. Lully's
24 violins (approx. 6+6+6+6) for the King was not the norm. Monteverdi and
Handel's large orchestras for vocal works and the orchestra at Bologna were
the other exceptions.
- Reception theory: instrumental concerts were mostly for the privileged since
nobility was sponsoring the concert. Publicly funded instrumental concerts
and composer entrepreneurship slowly emerged
at the end of the Baroque period (c.1725) but are common by the end of the
Classical era. Opera houses had been operating throughout the Baroque period
and formed the primary point of contact for the music eager public.
- Musical Form: 5 Baroque forms lay the foundation for the early symphony:
trio sonata, suite, concerto (solo/grosso), Italian sinfonia, and French overture.
The sinfonia and solo concerto are the only 2 of these 5 forms to survive
beyond the Baroque.
- Trio Sonata - The trio sonata lends its texture to the early
symphony. Two treble voices, often moving in 3rds or 6ths, the basso continuo
provided by cello and the harpsichord filling out the inner harmonies.
It generally has a contrapuntal nature with 4 movements patterned after
the church sonata (sonata de chiesa - slow/fast/slow/fast) or chamber
sonata (sonata de camera fast/slow/fast/slow).
Elements of this design continue well into the classic era and can be
seen in various degrees in Haydn's Passione, Le
Midi, Le Soir, and Le Matins symphonies. Though the other elements
are phased out, the three voice texture continued and can be found
in works by Ralph Vaughn Williams (the Classical
Symphony), Penderecki, and Dvorak (New World), among others.
- Instrumental Suite - a.k.a. Dance suite or Keyboard suite contributes
the binary form per its individual movements. The minuet becomes an integral
component of the early symphony. By the time of the earliest symphonies
(i.e. Sammartini's Symphony in F c.1744), the dance suite was well established
as a four movement form: Allemande (German), Courante (French), Sarabande
(Spanish), and Jig (English). Optional movements included Gavottes, Minuets,
and Bourées. The Sonata de Chiesa and the Dance suite both conveyed
a 4 movement form. Binary form is significant since it leads to sonata
form. Consider the diagram:
Section
|
| A :|
|
|: B:|
|
Key
|
1-5
|
5-1
|
The tonal plan is significant in the motion from tonic to dominant back
to tonic. Thematic material became structural when later Baroque binary
works began to recall beginning thematic material from the A section at
the end of the B section. The result is a Rounded Binary Form (since the
beginning comes 'round again):
Section
|
| A :|
|
|: B A':|
|
Key
|
1-5
|
5-1
|
Compare to Sonata form:
Section
|
| Exposition (A):|
|
| Development (B)
|
Recapitulation (A')|
|
Key
|
1-5
|
5
|
1
|
Baroque dance movements typically have a regular 4 measure phrase structure.
Furthermore, consider how the paired dances, especially Bourée,
Gavottes, and Minuets lend a thematic/character influence to Sonata form:
Section
|
Minuet #1
|
Minuet #2
|
D.C. Minuet #1
|
Character
|
Quick/Busy
|
Slower/Emphatic
|
Quick/Busy
|
Key |
1 |
par./rel. minor or 5 |
1 |
Numerous examples can be found of this,the minuets
from JS Bash's Cello Suite 1011 for instance. This character design
relates to the contrasting A and B themes found in sonata form, especially
considering how the A theme is retrieved (recap) by the D.C. of Minuet
#1. This relationship is not exact since the minuets lack development
and retrieval of the B theme in tonic, but the nested beginnings of this
concept are evident. The concerto forms another factor in the development
of the second theme group.
- The Concerto - The baroque concerto concept of contrast
permeates instrumental music in the classic era. Some scholars feel that
the contrast between large and small group statements in the concerto
lead to the emergence of the second theme group. The contrast between
blocks or groups of instruments forms another point of influence. Orchestral
shading by combining various groups of instruments remains a popular compositional
technique. Several types of concerto contribute to the modern symphony.
The solo concerto and concerto for orchestra (ripieno concerto) continue
to be popular forms. Their original order of movements was fast-slow-fast
per the sinfonia. The concertoesque symphonia concertante featured two
instruments and had a light character derived from the divertimentos.
This light character is adopted by the last movement of the symphony
- The French Overture - The French overture served as the first
movement for many large dramatic vocal works everywhere except Italy.
Handel and other Germans employed it frequently for their Italian operas
and it was the only form Purcell used for any of his dramatic vocal works.
JS Bach used it in all four orchestral suites. Comprised of a slow stately
first section in dotted rhythms followed by a fast fugal section, the
French overture lends the concept of introduction (often slow and stately)
to later symphonists. The introduction focuses on harmonic not thematic
aspects, often through chains of suspensions. The fugal allegro section
did not transfer to later works because its polyphonic/contrapuntal design
impeded harmonic considerations. However, the premise of preceding an
allegro section with a slow introduction did. Many preclassical symphonies
were either French overtures or Italian symphonias.
- The Italian sinfonia - Here is the true predecessor to the classical
symphony, a crowd pleasing "curtain raiser" with a fast-slow-fast
design - like the concerto. Early works by Alessandro Scarlatti were light
natured with poor thematic design - a lot of flash with little substance.
First movements were homophonic fanfares. A slow chordal second movement
followed by a fast dance movement in triple meter rounded out the form.
As Italian opera grew to dominate Europe and Britain, the Italian sinfonia
soon became the most popular introductory instrumental form.
- Composers soon wrote sinfonia independent of opera and the first collections
were published between 1740 and 1750. Opera composers felt this awakening
as many opera sinfonia from 1730-1740 display more design and intent than
what was commonly associated with opera - as seen in the style galant
works of Pergolesi which truly point toward classicism. The contributions
to the modern symphony from the sinfonia include homophonic design, a large
three movement form (F-S-F), and a concluding light hearted dance like movement
(also from the divertimento via the sinfonia concertante)
Score Excerpts
Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713; fl.1683); Trio Sonata in F major, Op.3, No.9
(1689).
- Example of 4 movement form per Sonata de Chiesa (S-F-S-F). First two movements
convey a quasi-French overture design, slow non-thematic mvmt. followed by
a fast fugal mvmt. The third mvmt. show the parallel thirds common to the
form. The last mvmt. has the typical baroque walking bass line. Many elements
typical of the Baroque and early galant style.
J.S. Bach (1685-1750; fl.1717); Orchestral Suite No.3 in D major, Gavotte (ca.
1720).
- Example of nested binary forms (Gavotte is rounded) inside an overall ternary
design. The structural importance of this tonal design must
be emphasized. The winds double the strings in typical baroque style. Notice
the developmental nature of the second section of the trio that points toward
the development section in sonata form.
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741; fl.1709); Concerto Grosso in A minor, Op. 3, No.
8 (1715).
- The important point here is the use of contrast provided by sectional treatment
- a scheme that is common in modern concerti. The concerto sectional design
stood fast in the face of rococo style homophony. Sections of a movement are
divided up between soloist and ripieno. Multiple sections permit multiple
themes - that can occur in any order. Vivaldi demands much more solo virtuosity
than is found in Corelli's trio sonatas. This means the soloist's lines are
often too difficult for the ripieno section to repeat literally - as often
happened with Corelli. The overall structure is a three movement form (F-S-F).
The first and last movements adhere to the sectional design while the second
movement is more lyrical (ariaesque?). The concertato/trio sonata style of
two treble instruments and continuo appears in the last mvmt.
George Frederic Handel (1685-1759; fl.1722); Messiah Overture (1741).
- This work is a mature French overture in two large sections. The first is
slow and stately with dotted rhythms while the second is a fugal allegro.
The melody lacks periodic design and streams in an unending baroque fashion
without clear cadences - but, being late in the baroque, it is still more
melodically focused than earlier French overtures. The main feature that carries
forward into the classic style is that of a slow introduction to the allegro
section.
Giovanni Pergolesi (1710-1736; fl.1723); Sinfonia from L'Olimpiade (1735).
- Pergolesi writes a crowd pleasing "curtain raiser" for his opera
seria L'Olimpiade. The work uses strings, horns, oboes, continuo, and finale
trumpets and begins with the standard opening flourish of activity. Three
motives quickly pass in an allegro movement that could be considered a sonatina
since there is no development and the second theme returns in tonic. The work
has more periodic design which points to opera practices a century earlier
(clear cadences set up new themes/motives). The slow movement is a miniature
sonata form that features a unifying rhythmic motive (Scottish snap). The
concluding allegro is the jewel of the work. It shows more maturity than earlier
works and points toward the classic sonata design: both sections repeat, there
are two themes, a development (4 bars), and a dance based finale. The pervasive
1/16ths and measured tremolo place the work in the rococo period. Pergolesi
delivers clear structures in the second and third movements void of counterpoint
and imitation (replaced by periodic melodic structures) that point to the
gallant style.
Optional Works:
- Lully Sinfonia
- Scarlatti sinfonia
Review concepts:
- Name the 5 main precursor forms to the classical symphony and explain specifically
how they influenced the symphony.
- How did texture, rhythm, harmony, melody, instrumentation, and reception
theory change during this era?
- What is Fortspinnungtypus?
- The birth of the symphony has two main progenitors, dramatic vocal works
(opera, cantata, and oratorio), and an increase in instrumental music. Be
able to discuss both and how exactly they influenced the symphony.
- Be able to explain how binary form contains the basic elements of sonata
form. Consider the larger ternary minuet-trio-minuet da capo aspects. Sonata
form is a tonal structure, what is the significance of melodic return (A')?
Consider the structural importance of themes/tonality.
Back to Top
Chapter 2
The Pre-classical Symphony
The Classical Period
- The rococo (1725-1775) and its style galant, Viennese classical (1770-1830;
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven) or high classical, Empfindsamer stil (1750-1780;
North German school per WF and CPE Bach), and Sturm und Drang (literary derived
aesthetics) combine in various ways to create the Classical period.
- Rococo - Rococo is a period (1725 - 1775) and style galant is
the noted style of that period. It marks the musical manifestation of
the enlightenment movement (philosophy) - the birth of the Age of Reason
during the early 1700s. Early composers include A. Scarlatti and F. Couperin.
The rococo is a transitional period between the baroque and classical.
It marks a shift from the complexity of German polyphony and counterpoint
toward the emerging French/Italian focus on homophony and melody (largely
vocal influenced). JS Bach wrote instrumental suites in the new style,
but remained largely loyal to past practices. The music of his sons, JC,
CPE, and WF, marks the shift in German style. From them and others (Mattheson,
Telemann, etc.) it passes on into the early works of Haydn and Mozart.
The combination of German, Italian, and French styles later results in
the international appeal of Classicism.
- Style Galant - a general rejection of polyphonic imitation and
overlapping cadences in favor of a light, quick, elegant homophonic style.
- Viennese and High Classical style - The Viennese period (1770-1830)
corrals the works of Haydn, Beethoven, and Mozart - they worked in Vienna.
The High Classical period addresses the mature works of Mozart and Haydn
similar to Bach and Handel in the High Baroque (1700-1750).
- Empfindsamer Stil - (1750-1780) worked to project "natural
feelings" into music, namely within a single movement. The baroque
aesthetic explored one emotion, or affect, per piece. C.P.E. Bach and
the North German school are very concerned with expanding this affect.
- Sturm und Drang - pushes past the pursuit of "natural feelings"
and toward more exaggeration and forced expressiveness. The concept is
adapted from literary sources.
- The Enlightenment/Age of Reason stresses balance and clarity - thus melody
and phrase structure became clearly defined. Harmonic style simplifies as
the numerous chord changes of the polyphonic baroque crystallize into a clear
homophonic I - V - I structure. Overlapping phrases are replaced by periodic
(antecedent-consequence) structures and clear cadential breaks. The meandering
melodies of the baroque are replaced by short, distinct, classical motives.
Counterpoint becomes the mechanism for reworking thematic material in developmental
sections. Which of these practices can be traced to vocal traditions? Homophony?
New forms or derivatives? Italian opera reaches its peak and the German opera
tradition begins (Mozart and others).
- The formal scheme is dominated by the multi-movement sonata per the trio,
church, and chamber sonata, and the dance suite. Sonata means "to sound"
and relates to instrumental music like canzona relates to vocal music.
- Reception theory - the growing middleclass wants more instrumental music.
They take music lessons, go to concerts, and have parlors for chamber performances.
Orchestras abound in church and court. Opera sinfonias and overtures drive
demand even higher and publishers respond with 'periodic overtures' - collections
of opera sinfonias or overtures in a single collection. The enormous demand
results in numerous cases of composer identity theft. J.C. Bach and Haydn
are among the first to write and conduct concerts for subscription patrons.
Haydn is among the first to become independently wealthy from music. Instrument
improvements lead to more virtuosity and the greater inclusion of winds.
- Preclassical symphonies (1730-1770) roughly coincide with the rococo period.
The Classical style becomes an international language with the mature symphonies
of the 1770s.
- Three Schools of Symphonic Development
- Italy - Giovanni Sammartini (1701-1775; 1738) is the primary
Italian force, and the earliest symphonic composer. He wrote approximately
75 symphonies. His work points the way to an instrumental concept independent
of dramatic vocal works. Many of his symphonies are string focused 3 movement
forms.
- Mannheim - Stamitz (Johann - 1737, Karl - 1772, & Anton -
1781) and Franz Richter (1749). Performers and composers at the Mannheim
court made a number of contributions toward the symphony's development:
1) homophony; 2) fast tempi per the first and last movements of the sinfonia;
3) crescendo with measured tremolo in the upper strings: a.k.a. the "Mannheim
roll"; 4) arpeggiation and tremolo derived from opera; 5) opening
fanfare style flourish to get attention per the Italian sinfonia; 6) "Rocket
Theme" - a quick theme of triadic design; and, 7) the sigh motive
- an accented dissonance that resolves up by step. J. Stamitz and Monn
(Vienna) are early figures to implement a 4 movement form.
- North German - CPE (1751) and JC (1757) Bach along with JG (1737)
and KG Graun (1731). Most of JC Bach's symphonies were 3 movement sinfonia
style works. CPE is important because he injected his symphonic works
with the expressive Empfindsamer stil and Sturm und Drang concepts. Works
by the Bach brothers are some of the finest early classic period symphonies.
- Vienna - GC Wagenseil (1746) and GM Monn (1769) also wrote in
the Italian sinfonia style, and like Stamitz, had a more sophisticated
sense of design. Monn's symphony in D (1740) is a mature work in four
movements - most of his symphonies are in 4 movements (rare).
- Summarized:
- During 1740-50 composers used the French overture or Italian sinfonia
form for concert symphonies. Four movement forms are rare (Monn's
symphony in D). Sammartini is the main figure.
- From 1750-60 true concert symphonies begin to appear (developmental
sections, 2nd themes, etc. - Stamitz, Monn, etc. thus mainly Mannheim
and Vienna) though often in 3 movements and still derived from the
vocal tradition (sinfonia/Fr. overture - but now more from the sinfonia
as the overture had a slow beginning and a fugal second section)
- Between 1760-70 the sinfonia or overture style symphony was replaced
by a dedicated instrumental work in 4 movements. Mozart's early symphonies
(his first was at the age of 8 in 1764) are mostly 3 movement forms.
JC Bach's piano concerti and CPE Bach's symphonies had a profound
effect on the young Mozart.
- Four movements: The four movement scheme is largely credited to
Vienna/German composers. Monn's works were primarily 4 movements.
The four movement concept comes from 3 movement works which were concluded
by a dance, either a minuet or a rondo. Haydn and Mozart wrote early
symphonies with minuet finales.
- Symphonic Movements:
- First movement form had, as mentioned before, been borrowed from Fr.
overtures or Italian sinfonias. The Fr. overture, by design, did not easily
convert into sonata form. Its slow stately first section with dotted rhythms
followed by a fugal allegro second section is an archetypal baroque structure.
The concept of a slow introduction followed by an allegro movement
is its primary legacy to future symphonic form. However, the binary
nature of the sinfonia's first movement lent itself perfectly to the tonal/thematic
demands of sonata form. It, in turn, hails from baroque dance/sonata binary
designs. Recall the discussion of the minuet - trio - minuet. It is a
large scale ternary shape with nested binary forms. The transitional issues
here are whether a development exists and if a second theme occurs in
the proper key. Late 18th and early 19th c. theorists were much more concerned
with tonal structure than clearly defined themes. It is crucial to understand
that a single theme aesthetic had been in place since the beginning of
the baroque. Charles Rosen reports that when Haydn's Parisian symphonies,
Nos. 92-94, were performed the critic for Mercure de France wrote admiringly
"that while less gifted composers needed many themes to sustain a
movement, Haydn needed only one" (The Classical Style, 31). When
precursory baroque forms are considered: dance suite movements, trio sonatas,
church/chamber sonatas, fugues, sinfonias, and overtures, etc., they all
exploit a single theme.
- Second Movements had poorly defined themes per the sinfonia tradition.
They eventually became more ornate both melodically and rhythmically,
as composers better understood their place in the overall scheme. These
works, mainly for strings, were either in binary or sonatina form - but
rarely a true sonata.
- Finales, as in the sinfonias, were dance movements. Either the minuet
or rondo served as finales in three movement works. These works were clear
binaries with sectional repeats and little if any development (usually
none). The minuet eventually found its home as the third movement and
the rondo became the finale. The dance-like nature of the final movement
is still found in many modern symphonies.
- General Style Changes:
- Counterpoint and polyphony give way to homophony, periodic structure,
and clear cadences. Counterpoint eventually returns as the development
receives more attention. Haydn is the first true pioneer of developmental
procedure. Mozart learned this from him as seen in his later works.
- Melodic sequence becomes the main device for increasing length. It forms
the segue to other harmonic areas.
- The perpetual rhythm of the baroque gave way to the rapid, light, and
elegant style of the rococo (galant).
- The walking baroque bass continues into the early classic era but disappears
in the high classic.
- Developments were simple at first, if given at all. Early developments
were often simple melodic sequences of earlier thematic material. Motivic
extraction, fugal treatment, and counterpoint were not common in developments
until late Haydn. Developmental procedures reach their peak later in the
hands of Beethoven.
- Long spun baroque style melodies persist for a while in slow (2nd) movements,
but faster movements prefer short, clear, motivic ideas.
- Early works had clear binary based sections and vague themes. By the
mid to late romantic period there are clear themes and vague sections
(FYI).
- Instrumentation carries forward from the baroque. Early works are usually
string focused with one or two pairs of woodwinds (oboes or flutes and
horns). The harpsichord persisted until the early symphonies of Haydn
and Mozart. Winds had typically doubled the strings but with technical
improvements grew to provide harmonic/cadential support, textural crescendo,
articulation accents, and essential secondary parts - countersubjects,
harmonies, etc. The strings adopt strategies from opera and provide harmonic
support via obligato arpeggiation and measured tremolo. The viola and
cello gain some independence instead of always doubling the bass. Early
18th c. scoring was often in 3 parts: treble (violins), middle harmony
(harpsichord), and bass (viola, cello, bass) per the trio sonata. By the
late 18th c. the orchestra had expanded to pairs of oboes, clarinets,
flutes, horns, trumpets, timpani, and strings - with greater part independence
and less string dominance.
Score Excerpts
G. Sammartini (1701-1775; 1738); Symphony No.1 in C major, (c.1720-1740).
- The first important concert symphony composer. His work presents more of
a departure from vocal influences (sinfonia/overture) and borrows from the
concerto and solo sonata. This, like many of his other symphonies, is a 3
movement work (sinfonia), scored for strings with some preclassical/transitional
aspects (measured tremolo; string obligato - a tactic for sustaining harmony).
- Mvmt. 1 Allegro - Basically a sinfonia without the beginning dramatic
flourish: 1) Loose multisection binary w/o repeats, 2) poor theme definition,
and, 3) rococo style/rhythm (light/quick).
- Mvmt. 2 Andante Piano - Like earlier opera derived slow movements with
more harmonic than melodic interest - but it looks ahead because the melodic
content has more substance than earlier slow movements.
- Mvmt. 3 Presto - An extended binary dance form with better defined themes.
J. Stamitz (1717-1757; 1737); Sinfonia No. 8 (La Melodia Germanica No. 1) (c.1755)
- Stamitz does much to develop the symphony. Here he uses a 4 movement form
(German/Viennese contribution), third mvmt. minuet-trio, increased length,
motivic theme design, first movement with some effort at development, and
Mannheim mannerisms.
- Mvmt. 1 Presto - Classical foreshadowings: A clear sonata form,
Mannheim roll, measured tremolo, string obligato, second theme in the
dominant, well defined themes, winds gain more independence - less doubling,
more harmonic sustain, reinforcing accents, presents B theme, etc.
Sinfonia legacies: lack of counterpoint in development (restates and
sequences theme in the nature of a development), bass maintains galant
style walking rhythm.
- Mvmt. 2 Andante non Adagio - This movement recalls earlier styles: trio
sonata three voice texture for strings alone, clear binary form, and theme
groups that fail to materialize.
- Mvmt. 3 Minuet - Stamitz uses the dance suite minuet - trio form (no
development here - but will happen with Haydn, then Mozart) that features
the winds in the trio (it was/is common to feature a small group in the
trio), winds double strings, (earlier style). Many late baroque/rococo
characteristics.
- Mvmt. 4 Prestissimo - A clear sonata form with thematic sequencing in
lieu of contrapuntal development. Earlier traits include winds doubling
strings and simple themes.
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809; 1770)
(Preclassical)
- The true father of the classical symphony. The first master of developmental
procedure (counterpoint, imitation, etc.). The only figure whose life spans
the entire period, past the Erocia, and whose symphonic efforts spanned almost
40 years (1757-95). A man so loved that his head was stolen from the grave
by admirers and was only returned to the Esterházy family in the 20th
century. He was the first composer to become independently wealthy from his
music. He taught both Mozart, who deeply admired him, and Beethoven, who really
wanted to study with Mozart - but he had already died (their personalities
clashed and that mentorship ended quickly). His exhaustive treatment of the
symphony (106) and other instrumental forms like the multi-movement divertimento
(160) qualify him as the first great instrumental composer/thinker. His style
does not hail from vocal forms (sinfonia/overture). His crowning symphonic
achievements are the London Symphonies (more later). By 1770 (his mid-life
date), he had arrived at his mature style. Works before 1770 are in the early
style (first 30 symphonies - but, there's a terrible chronology problem so
do not rely on the number for the composition order). His roots are
Austrian/German (instrumental) and not Italianate (operatic) per the sinfonia
like Mozart. He employed the church sonata form, first movement sonata form,
and over half of his early symphonies are in 4 movement form (much more than
any of his contemporaries). His finales were often in sonata form and duple
meter, not a dance or rondo in triple, which also looks toward classicism.
- His three introductory symphonies for the Esterházy court, Le Matin,
Le Midi, and Le Soir, have programmatic intentions and reflect a blend of
early trends and his maturing style. Each are 4 movements. The scoring recalls
the trio sonata style and Haydn explores small groupings for contrast.
- Le Matin, Symphony No. 6 (1761)
- General Concepts - Though Haydn is the father of the mature classical
symphony, this work combines elements of the past by synthesizing the
French overture/sinfonia, concerto, and divertimento. Concertato (concerto)
textures dominate each movement complete with his signature woodwind concertino
passages. The overriding concerto principle and WW features are a bit
unusual.
- Mvmt 1 Adagio, Allegro - Rococo legacies: introduction a la the French
overture per slow, stately, dotted rhythms that segue to an allegro. He
gives the winds the main theme which recalls the concerto or divertimento.
The development is a bit scant by mature Haydn standards but is more intricate
than early symphonists. Classical foreshadowings: clear form and clear
themes with motivic unity. The wind emphasis is unique (points to chamber
music influences). Violins have measured tremolo and sustain harmony with
repeated figures.
- Mvmt 2 Adagio, Andante, Adagio - Haydn reduces the texture to solo violin
and cello (a signature trait of his - per the concerto) in the andante.
It is scored for strings alone as the soloists and ripieno trade the theme
with soloists adding coloratura.
- Mvmt 3 Minuet - The concerto principle continues and the woodwinds are
again featured.
- Mvmt 4 Finale Allegro - Looks ahead by uses a duple allegro in lieu
of a dance or rondo. The concerto principle continues for woodwinds and
violin.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1751-1791; 1771)
(Preclassical)
- Mozart's style hails from the Italian opera tradition. He studied with numerous
opera and symphonic composers (more later) but the person with the most impact
on his young development was JC Bach. His Italian operas and sinfonias were
popular in London and they deeply affected the young Mozart, who quickly absorbed
Bach's expert handling of the galant style. Over half of Mozart's early works
are in the sinfonia style. This work lacks a sense of development since those
sections are simply restatements of the main theme, sequences, etc., until
the B theme appears.
- Symphony No.1 in Eb Major, K.16 (1764) [Sinfonia style and form]
- Mvmt 1 Allegro molto - sectional themes (concept reaches back past Vivaldi)
instead of his mature definitive tunes. Unusual motto opening. Though
young he employs secondary and closing themes, measured tremolo, winds
double some but also reinforce accents and harmonies. The form is an irregular
sonata due to the lack of development.
- Mvmt 2 Andante - The harmonic focus of this second mvmt recalls the
preclassic sinfonia style as his melodies are undefined without motivic
structure. His more mature use of WWs continues. Older style binary form.
- Mvmt 3 Presto - The triple meter presto is true to sinfonia finale dance
traditions. The well defined tunes and short phrases hail from the galant
style while the increased chromaticism in the melody points to a future
Mozart signature trait.
Review concepts:
- Compare High Baroque, High Classical, Rococo, and Style Galant. Think in
terms of imitation and counterpoint, or lack thereof, periodic phrasing, sequence,
rhythm (perpetual or not?) and cadence.
- Consider the baroque doctrine of affections and how it changes via empfindsamer
stil and Sturm and Drang. How do these affective doctrines manifest musically?
- What are musical manifestations of the enlightenment (the Age of Reason).
- How did the middleclass influence musical demand and development in the
classic era?
- Where are the early symphonic schools and what did each contribute (North
German/Berlin - CPE Bach and Graun, Mannheim - J. Stamitz, Viennese - Gossman,
Monn, and Wagenseil, Italian - Sammartini, Jomelli, and Galluppi)?
- Explain how the 'true' symphony evolved from the sinfonia and overture.
When and how does it shed its vocal trappings? How does each movement's complexity
and character evolve?
- Discuss how orchestration evolves from the baroque to the preclassical period
(rococo). Be sure to include changes in prominence, duties, and facility.
Are there any new instruments? Do any disappear?
- Explain the early styles of Haydn and Mozart. Discuss the preclassical elements
that persist and the new strategies that appear.
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Chapter 3
The Classical Symphony
The classical symphony matures during the 1770s, around the mid-life
dates of Haydn (1770) and Mozart (1771). Their works denote the High Classic
period. The four movement scheme becomes the common form:
- Mvmt 1 Fast/Serious - Sonata form: primary and second theme in contrasting
tonalities, development with tonal contrast and motivic experimentation, and
a recapitulation of both themes in tonic.
- Mvmt 2 Slow - Variety of forms (variation, part form or sectional, sonata
form, sonatina, etc.), often reduced instrumentation, and possible WW or Brass
focus.
- Mvmt 3 Moderate (lively) dance - Minuet and trio. Trios with reduced textures
and a WW/string focus. Not a developmental form yet, but will mature in the
hands of Beethoven where the middle section (dev. area) becomes a scherzo.
- Mvmt 4 Fast/light - The use of duple meter rondos, sonata-rondos, and sonata
forms. The last mvmt has a lighter nature than the first mvmt.
Baroque/Rococo Legacies:
- Trio sonata (3 voice - paired trebs and bass) and concertato (solo/tutti)
textures.
- Second themes presented by WW or brass, strings still purvey the main theme.
- Modulation as a developmental device.
- Slow first movement introductions per French overture.
- Trios featuring reduced textures of WW or strings per divertimento.
- Dance nature of mvmt 3.
- Light, quick nature of finale (rococo)
- Measured Tremolo
- Harmonic sustain via string obbligato.
Classical concepts:
- Developments that feature motivic exploration via counterpoint, imitation,
or fugal experimentation.
- More emphasis of WW, brass, and timpani.
- Firm 3 theme design (1st, 2nd, and closing).
- Expanded length.
- Definitive tunes with motivic design.
- Expanded articulation.
- 1/16th note countermelodies lend a contrapuntal quality.
Classical Orchestration:
- Pairs of winds (fl., ob., cl., bass., horns, and tpt. Two timpani (increases
harmonic support). Strings still present the main theme - Haydn and Mozart
feature soprano winds more.
- Brass mostly reserved for harmonic accents and sustain.
Baroque/Rococo concepts gradually left behind:
- Three movement sinfonia form.
- Structures with poorly a conceived theme.
- Monothematic design.
- Irregular sonata (loose Binary) forms, so termed because they had no development.
The concept of development is crucial to the sovereignty of the instrumental
genre.
- Dependence upon vocal forms for exposure.
- Change of purpose: from an opening work to get people seated (sinfonia or
Fr. overture per opera, cantata, or oratorio) to the main event of the concert
(concert symphony).
Haydn (1770)
- Refer to the preclassical discussion.
- Many of his symphonies are monothematic.
- The pioneer of developmental procedure.
- Symphony No.44 in e minor, Trauer (Mourning) (1771)
- This symphony is from his middle period and combines elements from the
past and looks toward the future.
- Mvmt 1 Allegro con brio - Monothematic. Tight motivic design. Development
begins quickly and lasts for 20 bars - substitutes for second theme. Incomplete
recap. Short coda based on the theme. Orchestrally mature: winds are more
independent, less doubling.
- Mvmt 2 Minuetto - Rare use of minuet-trio as second movement form. Even
more interestingly, the minuet is a canon. The trio is not developmental.
- Mvmt 3 Adagio - Looks and acts like a dance suite binary. Understated
with muted strings and occasional winds. Three voice scoring.
- Mvmt 4 Presto - Like mvmt 1: Monothematic. Tight motivic design. Extended
development (74-112) - substitutes for second theme. Incomplete recap.
Resembles the dance movement in theme and design since each half uses
the same thematic material.
- Summary - This work paves the way toward Haydn's concept of a mature
symphony: expressive content per Sturm und Drang (SuD), motivic themes,
motivic unification, form substitution/experimentation, developmental
counterpoint, rapid pace per style galant.
Mozart (1771) - Middle Period
- Torn between the lyric Italian with galant characteristics and the Austria/German
(Haydn) fancy of counterpoint, development, and emotional content (SuD). Overall,
the Italian lyric style remained the main creative force.
- Reaches maturity after studying with Haydn. His other tutors read like a
Who's Who list of the early classic period but Haydn, JC Bach, Gluck (French
dramatic content), and Stamitz were the most important.
- Absorbed the Viennese/German preference for 4 movement form.
- Occasionally places new themes in the development.
- The pioneer of melodic and harmonic chromaticism, in ways even more so than
Beethoven.
- Symphony No.29 in A major, K.201 (1774).
- Mvmt 1 Allegro Moderato - Themes intertwined with other motives (uncontrollable
sense of melody), development is interrupted by new theme (multiple themes
in lieu of development were often the norm - remember that contrapuntal
development is the new idea and replaces this practice), Orchestration:
winds rarely double strings and lend harmonic support, only scored for
oboes, horns, and strings (more Italian than German). The walking bass
rhythm of the galant is largely avoided.
- Mvmt 2 Andante - Style galant work: irregular sonata form (no real development
but thematic sequences and modulations reminiscent of the rococo),
- Mvmt 3 Minuet - Tight motivic design permeates theme and accompaniment.
The trio is lyrical. This movement looks back to the style galant.
- Mvmt 4 Allegro con spirito - Sonata form with clear themes. Development
presents imitative sequences of the theme.
- Summary - Improving developmental procedures, motivic unification, and
well conceived transitions.
Mozart (Late) (1788 - six weeks during the summer)
- His final 3 symphonies show his mature symphonic style (No. 39, 40, and
41). By this point Mozart had synthesized Italianate lyric opera attributes
with the North German Sturm und Drang, the Mannheim effects and orchestral
strategies, and the pronounced influence of his mentor - Haydn:
- Extended forms
- Thematic development and counterpoint
- Motivic unity
- Symphony No.40 in g minor, K.550 (1788). This symphony is the finest of
all of Mozart's symphonies.
- Mvmt 1 Allegro Molto - Sonata form with motivic design that becomes
motivic unity (a Haydn trait that Mozart incorporated late). Dissonance
and chromaticism are Mozartian traits that permeate this movement - both
melodically and harmonically (scholars have investigated the m2 motion
that frequents this work). Mozart foreshadows romantic trends with his
chromatic harmonic progressions and melodic lines. The main theme begins
on an appoggiatura. The development weaves extended tonal regions with
fugal treatment, counterpoint, and a countermelody in 1/8th notes in the
violins. Orchestral maturity appears as the verbatim doubling of the strings
by the winds ceases. They now have solo features, introduce ideas, and
sustain harmonies. Strings add color with octave voicings. Clarinets were
added later by revising the oboe parts. Consider the change from early
classical orchestration: winds doubled strings verbatim, bassoon doubled
bass line, horns were often unison, less use of trumpets, viola doubled
the bass with cello, clarinets were rare if used at all, largely a three
voice texture (Trio sonata/Suite).
- Mvmt 2 Andante - Sonata form. Counterpoint continues via imitation;
Mozart gives a Haydnesque dynamic surprise early with a forte Eb-7 chord
amid an otherwise quite moment along with a false start at measure 69.
Chromatic progressions and lines recall the first movement. The winds
are featured more, a trait not uncommon since second movements were understated
in general. Mozart uses the wind and string choirs antiphonally to develop
material (a later romantic trait that equalizes the traditional preference
for strings). The winds provide much of the harmonic support.
- Mvmt 3 Minuetto Allegretto - The minuet form was restrictive and hard
to develop motivically. Mozart avoids the problem by writing out the repeat
of the A section and uses it as a development section. The trio retrieves
rococo/ early classical ideas with its reduced texture and subdued voicings.
- Mvmt 4 Allegro Assai - Mozart's creates cyclical unity by retrieving
the motivic design and dissonance activity. The Mannheim rocket theme
technique propels the opening to another appoggiatura. Another 1/8th note
countermelody appears. Minor seconds reappear. Tonal ambiguity in the
development per the first movement. A series of diminished sevenths (mm.
125-134) looks ahead to Beethoven. Orchestration resembles that of the
first movement.
- Summary - Mozart's early Italian, string focused style with little counterpoint
has now evolved past Haydn's London symphonies and looks ahead to Beethoven
with its dissonance and chromaticism. Symphony No. 40 foreshadows the
romantic use of dissonance and chromaticism both harmonically and melodically.
Mozart uses the minor second and motivic design throughout the work which
provides cyclical motivic unity via 1/2 step resolution. The immediate
development of thematic material is Haydnesque (late) and also looks ahead
to Romantics. The ability to unify works around one or two motives is
the hallmark of late Beethoven. Orchestrally, the winds are almost equal
with the strings. The symphony's overall pacing recalls galant tempos.
Haydn (1771) (late works)
- The London Symphonies mark his crowning achievement and the high point of
the Classical symphony. These symphonies are unique collectively and individually.
Haydn's expressiveness has increased via Sturm and Drang influences, especially
in slow movements. In general, to sum up his mature style:
- More dynamic emphasis.
- Heightened dramatic content (Sturm und Drang).
- Greater length.
- Increased counterpoint - especially in the development.
- More rhythmic syncopation.
- Harpsichord drops out of the texture.
- Humorous elements of false reprise (recap.), Surprise, and nonmusical
intent (like the farewell, the clock, etc.).
- Use of English folk songs point ahead to romanticism.
- Most first mvmts have a slow introduction to a fast allegro - usually
duple. Most second mvmts are variation form - all slow. All third mvmts
are minuets with trios - second halves became developments. Finales are
brisk sonata forms or sonata-rondos - all in duple meter.
- Theme treatment - Haydn was unique. Some second themes are first themes
in dominant (remember the monothematic aesthetic). Development keys are
often mediant, submediant, or plagal. Only one starts in the dominant. Most
of his development themes are based on the primary theme.
- Orchestration - Haydn uses the typical late classical cast of instruments:
WWs in pairs with strings, timpani, horns and tpts. He adds triangle, cymbal,
and bass drum to the Military (100) and doesn't use clarinets regularly
until the second set of London symphonies (99-104). Do not miscredit Beethoven
for the addition of the timpani - Beethoven's innovation lies in his melodic
and featured use of the timpani.
Haydn came to Esterhazy Eisenstadt court in 1761. He became kapellmeister
in 1766. His employer, Prince Nickolas Esterhazy, died in 1790. His son came
to power and greatly reduced court activities and Haydn's duties. Haydn was
contacted by Londonite Johann Salomon who convinced him to come to London
and put on a series of symphonies. He left in December of 1791 saying good-bye
to Mozart for the last time - Mozart dies in December of 1791. Haydn returned
to Vienna in 1792. Before returning to London in 1794, he takes Beethoven
as a pupil (actually came to study with Mozart), writes two quartet collections,
op. 71 and 74, completes symphony No.99 and begins 100 and 101. So, the 1790s
see the death of Mozart, Haydn's London symphonies, the maturation of the
Classic style, and Beethoven's move to Vienna and his midlife point (1798).
- Symphony No.104 in D major (London) (1795)
- Mvmt 1 Adagio, Allegro - Typical slow intro to a fast allegro (legacy
of the Fr. overture) complete with pervasive dotted motive. Dissonant
appoggiatura figure recalls Mozart's Sym. No. 40 (1788). Motivic unity
with two motives that comprise the main theme. Restates main theme in
dominant as second theme. The main theme is reconfigured as the closing
theme. (Meaning tight motivic construction per the repeated note theme.)
Haydn uses an 1/8th note countermelody in the development. The orchestration
is less independent than Mozart's. Haydn uses more unisons and winds are
not as preeminent.
- Mvmt 2 Andante - Three section variation form - quasi rondo sounding,
or quasi rounded binary.
- Mvmt 3 Menuetto (Allegro) - Like Mozart did in No.40, Haydn adds developmental
procedures to the minuet and trio via their second sections. An 1/8th
note countermelody develops the trio's B section. Like other 3rd movements,
the forces are reduced for understatement.
- Mvmt 4 Allegro spiritoso - Sonata form. Haydn gives a false second theme
start: since his second theme are often a restatement of main theme, he
begins that and then follows with a true second theme. The coda works
more like a second development (looking toward Beethoven again. ).
- Summary - The work is not as progressive orchestrally as Mozart's No.
40. This may be due to Haydn's desire for the symphonies to be popular
in England and thus tapered dissonance, orchestration, and chromaticism
for that reason. He was profit minded. The changes in form mark his desire
to avoid typical designs. By developing themes immediately after stating
them, Haydn, like Mozart, looks ahead to Beethoven. They both bring developmental
activity to the forefront by substituting second themes with it - as often
seen in the minuets.
Review concepts:
- How did Haydn and Mozart change symphonic tradition?
- Compare Haydn and Mozart in regards to style: rhythm, melody, form, etc.
- Explain how Haydn and Mozart influenced each other.
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Chapter 4
The Symphonies of Beethoven
(1770-1827; 1798)
Beethoven's contributions to music are still being measured. He
spans the classic and romantic periods and in many ways, exhausts the possibilities
of the symphony. Those that follow him are haunted by his accomplishments and
struggle to walk in his foot steps. Classicism produced symphonic form: a work
of four or more movements comprised of a sonata form first movement, a slow
lyrical second mvmt., a dance based minuet-trio-minuet, and rondo or sonata
finale. It was a clearly understood language by all: audience, composer, and
patron. It was functional. It had, and has, a target market. Classical works
were and are popular pieces, and popular music - a simple look at the works
played by any orchestra or philharmonic is permeated with works by Haydn, Mozart,
and Beethoven - Brahms marks a continuation of this aesthetic. Do you often
seen Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner? Romanticism marks a departure from form derived
works. It is the birth of the individual, the artist, art for art's sake; it
is a manner of personal self expression divorced from the need to explain, entertain,
or defend.
Beethoven's contributions to Classicism (consider how many of
these are extensions of trends originating with Haydn and Mozart):
- Expands forms - longer intros, developments, codas, but also longer expositions
and virtually everything else. Codas became second developments. Some were
longer than other sections.
- Replaces the minuet with the scherzo allowing more development in the 3rd
mvmt.
- Increased the complexity of the variation form.
- Raises motivic unity and cyclical treatment to new heights. Some works are
based on one or two short motives that constantly reappear rhythmically and/or
harmonically altered. This is one of his main means of increasing length.
- Elides between movements (5th. sym. III-IV).
- Expands orchestral forces: trombones (5th. sym), piccolo, contrabassoon,
and vocal forces (9th. sym).
- Thickens textures. Simply put, at any given moment there is usually more
going on in a Beethoven symphony than those by Haydn or Mozart - more parts
and more WW/brass emphasis. He demands more out of the players and their instruments
- more range and virtuosity. The distance between bass and soprano expands.
Instrumental choirs work antiphonally and more equally. Horns often introduce
new themes (lyrical second). He gives frequent solos to clarinet, oboe, and
bassoon. Like Haydn and Mozart, he uses octave doublings in the strings.
- He is a master of cadential extension and harmonic/melodic interruption
(chaining diminished 7th chords where a cadence or theme is expected).
- Dichotomy between long lyrical lines (a romantic device) and short motivic
gestures.
- Rhythm is innovative. Short, driving motives and syncopations. The 5th symphony
is the first work to have a rhythmic identity apart from its melodic content.
He creates contrast by juxtaposing rhythmically motivic first themes against
lyrical second themes (5th sym.). Tempo changes within movements and fermatas
to clear the way for new or contrasting material.
- Developmental procedures involve retrograde, imitation, truncation, pedal,
and fugal treatment. He, like Haydn, often begins developing an idea or theme
immediately after introducing it. Some scholars contend that Beethoven often
begins with a development that later seamlessly turns into a melody.
- Greater use and range of dynamics with abrupt, terraced style changes at
times. Long crescendos.
His symphonies fall into four categories (1800 - 1825):
- Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 8 are neoclassical works with no. 8 being the summation
of that style.
- Nos. 3, 5, and 7 forge new strategies, push the boundaries of the idiom
and pave the way toward romantic techniques.
- No.6 is the 'Pastoral symphony' and is imbued with programmatically derived
musical content.
- No.9 is the summation of trends began in 3, 5, and 7, and creates a new
genre with the addition of the voice.
Its simply enough to think of 1, 2, and 4 as shorter works with classical attributes,
and smaller developments. These works reflect the galant rhythm that served
to unite unrelated elements. These works use filler passages, unrelated cadences,
and sequential devices to unite sections. Symphony no. 8 derives transitions
from motives used in the themes. Galant rhythms do not dominate activity.
Symphony no.7 is the summation of trends found in nos. 3 and 5. Both nos. 5
and 7 are unified by a pervasive motive. The 7th symphony is based primarily
on one motive, while the 5th is not (but close). The 5th breaks down into the
normal sections and subsections, while the 7th is, for all practical purposes,
a cyclical work with much more continuity.
- Symphony No. 1 (1800)
- Classical attributes:
- Standard four movement form.
- Minuet not Scherzo (but evolving).
- Slow intro per Fr. overture.
- Galant style finale with exception of long development.
- Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (incl. clarinets)
- Preromantic attributes:
- 2nd movement sonata form (Mozart wrote a symphony with all four
mvmts in sonata form.)
- 3rd mvmt. quasischerzo.
- Symphony No. 2 (1800)
- Classical attributes:
- Standard four movement form..
- Long slow intro per Fr. overture - but innovatively developmental
- Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (clarinets more featured)
- though growing in emphasis.
- Mvmt melodic style evolving from Haydn and Mozart.
- Galant style finale with exception of long development.
- Preromantic attributes:
- 3 movements in sonata form: I, II, and IV
- 3rd mvmt. Scherzo replaces Minuet (trio remains along with overall
M-T-M structure).
- Extended codas in I and IV.
- Developmental style intro.
- More motivic construction
- Theme differentiation per dynamics.
- Echo passages between instrumental choirs.
- Symphony No. 3 (Eroica) Landmark symphony as it ushers in a new symphonic
style. Lays the basis for Nos. 5, 7, and 9. Beethoven originally titled this
symphony the 'Heroic' symphony to dedicated to Napoleon. Beethoven saw this
as the emancipation of the people and thought that the people would not govern
themselves. When it became clear that Napoleon was really no different than
the monarchy and even more oppressive, Beethoven was devastated. When Napoleon
sacked Vienna, after swearing he would not do so, Beethoven scratched out
the dedication and simply titled it 'Eroica.'
- Classical attributes:
- Standard four movement form..
- Long slow intro per Fr. overture - but innovatively developmental
- Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (clarinets more featured) -
though growing in emphasis. 3 French horns.
- Preromantic attributes:
- Greater motivic unity/construction.
- More emphasis on counterpoint and imitation to extend and develop
melodic ideas.
- All movements are much longer - part due to development and coda extensions.
- More complex variation form appears in the finale. Haydn had used
it in slow movements (II) but Beethoven uses it anywhere he wants.
- 3 Fr. horns instead of two. Separates cello from bass in score - thus
five staves for strings (becomes standard calligraphy by Schubert's
time.
- Summary:
- Mvmt 1 has a new theme in the development (a la Mozart) and coda has
modulations. Coda is as long as exposition (147 ms.)
- Mvmt 2 is a song form (DC aria will become standard mvmt II form later)
with a fugal section in the recap that greatly extends the mvmt.
- Mvmt 3 is a true scherzo (allegro vivace) monothhematic with a development
for the second half of the scherzo. Beethoven completely writes out the
trio's da capo just to change four measures from syncopated to duple (mm.
381-384).
- Mvmt 4 is a theme and 10 variations. The theme sounds like a ground
(single line unison theme). Beethoven sets up the dichotomy between rhythmic
initial theme and lyric second theme in the variations. Some variations
are fugal (4 and 8), some are simple, 3 introduces the countermelody,
6 introduces a new theme, and 9 and 10 are excellent WW features.
- Symphony No. 4 Returns to the classic style of Nos. 1 and 2. This work is
in the vein of Mozart and Haydn
- Classical attributes:
- Much shorter than the Eroica.
- Grace note ornamentation in exposition per rococo/style galant.
- Standard four movement form.
- Long slow intro per Fr. overture.
- Classical orchestration: WWs in pairs (WW are much more preeminent
- especially in II).
- Finale has early classical design.
- Preromantic attributes:
- some motivic unity/construction - primary Beethoven trait.
- Unison passages for transition/character change (mm.121-132).
- First use of 5 part (quasi-rondo) scherzo, very developmental
- continued emphasis on counterpoint and imitation to extend and develop
melodic ideas.
- Summary:
- Mvmt 1 coda is simply a cadential/motivic extension - no development
or new themes (mm. 337-339).
- Mvmt 2 is more lyrical and hints toward the romantic cantabile style.
The WWs carry thematic focus. No developments restates theme with
embellishments (rococo).
- Mvmt 3 is like a rondo S-T-S-T-S and very developmental
- Mvmt 4 is a finale with an early classic design per its multisectioned
theme groupings, rushing 1/16th note galant pace (especially in the
closing section). Reduced development. Dance-like in the preclassic
style.
- Symphony No. 6 (Pastoral Symphony) is a program symphony. Not in the overt
sense of Berlioz and the Symphonie Fantastique, but more along the oblique
lines of Haydn's Le Matin, Le Midi, and Le Soir. The subtitles evoke the program:
- Program subtitles:
- Mvmt 1: Cheerful impressions on arriving in the country
- Mvmt 2: By the brook
- Mvmt 3: Peasant's merrymaking
- Mvmt 4: The storm
- Mvmt 5: The shepherd's hymn
- Classical attributes:
- Traditional forms, except V is extended.
- Less development overall.
- Melodic 3rds.
- Understated 2nd mvmt.
- Preromantic attributes:
- 2 Trombones and piccolo as in the 5th sym.
- WW focus (II).
- 5 mvmt form.
- Extended codas.
- Mvmt 3 elides into mvmt 4, and 4 elides into 5.
- Motivic unity/construction - primary Beethoven trait.
- Continued emphasis on counterpoint and imitation to extend and develop
melodic ideas.
- Summary:
- Mvmt 1 has tight motivic design. Less counterpoint than one would
expect (would a dramatic counterpoint rich development convey cheerful
impressions?). Thirds harmonize melody akin to the trio sonata or
concertante design. Median modulations foreshadow Schubertian tonal
schemes. How does this mvmt. convey its subtitle.
- Mvmt 2 uses strings to convey the water sounds. WW focused mvmt.
where the flute, oboe, and clarinet imitate the nightingale, the quail,
and the cuckoo.
- Mvmt 3 is a scherzo without repeats, though modern performances
repeat the sections. Elides into mvmt 4.
- Mvmt 4 is the storm which elides into mvmt 5 (need more on the storm).
- Mvmt 5 is the most pastoral, horns evoke the shepherd's call (main
theme). The mvmt is almost monothematic as the recapitulation and
coda present variations/extractions of the main theme.
- Symphony No. 9 (Ode to Joy). This monumental work brings instrumental music
full circle by returning it to its vocal beginnings - though now on instrumental
terms. It is as if Beethoven had exhausted his instrumental possibilities
to the point to where the only other alternative was to add the voice. His
other major vocal work, the opera Fidelio, was a huge failure. Beethoven's
use of cyclical motivic unity and continuous development point ahead to standard
romantic practices.
- Innovations: The numerous innovations pave the way for many 19th century
practices.
- largest orchestral force for any work of the time, plus choir and
vocal soloists. Along with the typical WWs in pairs, he adds piccolo,
two trumpets, two extra horns (all four are used in all mvmts. - often
doubling at the octave though some 4 part playing occurs), three trombones,
triangle, cymbals, and bass drum (extra percussion only used in coda
of mvmt IV). The brass section is now a true orchestral choir and
his line up becomes the standard for many 19th century composers.
- Longest of his symphonies (over one hour).
- Choral finale (foreshadows Mahler's several symphonies with voice
appearing in the finale.)
- Text is based on selected verses of Schiller's poem "Ode to
Joy." The finale is a variation form with strains of the poem
forming successive variations.
- Second mvmt with added scherzo approximates sonata form.
- Summary:
- Mvmt 1 Allegro, ma non troppo, un poco maestoso:
- Tight thematic unity (melodic and rhythmic) with extracted motives
binding the work and its several theme groups.
- The multiplicity of themes, all born of the same germ, point
ahead to Mahler.
- Development introduces newly derived theme. Counterpoint techniques
include countermelody and fugal treatment.
- Transitional passages provide more unity as they are derived
from the main theme, introduce that theme at each appearance,
and seem inseparable form it.
- Mvmt 2 Scherzo
- The need to have a development replaced the early binary contrasting
theme in the minuet. Beethoven switches form the restrictive minuet
to scherzo in no.2. Each subsequent scherzo has more development
(sym. nos. 3, 5, 7, and now 9). The trio usually presents theme/character
contrast since the second half of the scherzo was the development.
The 9th's scherzo envelops sonata form with the addition of two
contrasting themes, a full development, and a recap. of both themes
in tonic. The timpani becomes a melodic soloist in mm. 195-204.
- Mvmt 3 Adagio
- The is a modified rondo with each A return varied to some degree.
WWs are featured (typical for slow mvmts.). Melodic ornamentation.
- Mvmt 4
- The finale is a variation form. The vocal nature of a work (poem)
with successive verses lends itself to this form.
- Long intro with bass string recitative. The chord in ms. 208
has all 7 notes of the d minor scale.
- The program (ode) is one of universal joy with sacred overtones.
The ninth variation is a double fugue. The coda is extremely long
and incorporates vocal soloists and choir.
- The addition of the voice tot he symphony becomes the example
for composers like Mahler.
- Summary: Comparing symphonies nos. 1 and 9 show just how far Beethoven
expanded and innovated the form. As noted before, Beethoven's use
of cyclical motivic unity and continuous development (as in the rondo)
point ahead to standard romantic practices. His works form an example
that many romantic composers carefully follow.
Score Excerpts
Symphony No.5 in c minor (1807).
- Overview - This work, more than any other before it, sets the precedent
for future symphonic works. It expands upon the innovations of the Eroica
and points the way to Brahms and Berlioz. Its motivic unity, both rhythmic
and melodic, reaches far beyond any similar structures by Haydn or Mozart.
The recurrence of this motive gives the work cyclical unity across movements
and helps propel the sense of one large structure. It introduces new ideas,
forms a transition between sections and creates a deep sense of cohesion.
Beethoven extends the codas, employs developmental expositions, elevates the
development of the scherzo, and expands the classical concept of variation
to include elements of sonata form. Beethoven's use of WW almost put them
on equal footing with the strings, though the latter still introduces all
of the primary themes.
- Mvmt 1 Allegro con brio - The rhythmic motive is introduced. It will later
have six melodic variations. Theme groups occur as multiple second (B, C)
and closing themes (D, E) occur (see Stedman, p.77). The development employs
antiphonal treatments of the motives by echoing instrumental choirs.
- Mvmt 2 Andante con moto - A variation form with binary/developmental first
theme treatment. Beethoven later develops the theme orchestrally and dynamically.
Cyclical unity occurs as the viola recalls a variant of the rhythmic motive.
Mediant modulations from c minor to Ab major occur.
- Mvmt 3 Scherzo (Allegro vivace) - Restatements of the A1 and A2 themes are
developmental/varied. The A1 theme is derived from the rhythmic motive in
mvmt 1. The trio forms a fugal development of the B theme. The return (da
capo) is varied and developed - not a verbatim repetition. A long transition
based on the scherzo's second theme forms the segue into mvmt 4.
- Mvmt 4 - Textural emphasis (thicker/louder) occurs with the addition of
piccolo, 3 trombones (funeral connotations), and contrabassoon - his first
symphonic use of these instruments. Multiple themes with the second theme
(B) serving as the closing theme. The transitional/concluding scherzo theme
is retrieved in the development and serves again as a bridge to the expositionary
material (recap.). The coda is almost as long as everything that came before
it with an added presto section and a lengthy cadential extension.
Symphony No.7 in A major (1812).
- Overview - The 7th symphony is unified by a single motive that permeates
each movement than the 5th symphony's motive. Beethoven imbues this work with
more affect than those before it. His use of variation form continues in the
second movement. The scherzo continues its developmental trends while the
finale combines the best of classic (dance nature) preromantic (development/length)
attributes. Even more striking is that his innovations are cast in a form
with three dance style movements (I, III, and IV - very classical). The orchestration
continues his featuring of the WWs and his contrasting choir concept (strings
- WWs). The brass is not as prominent as in the 5th symphony. He continues
to give the strings more independence; the viola has its own part (not bass
doubling) and the cello separates from the bass in the score at key points.
Less octave doubling overall. The timpani is used like the brass was in early
symphonies: accents, harmonic reinforcement, and cadential emphasis. Timpani
rolls help build dynamic climaxes. Its use to emphasize the rhythmic nature
of thematic motives - including one melodic solo (mm.315-319) - is new and
forward looking.
- Mvmt 1 Poco sostenuto, Vivace - Sonata form with extended introduction.
Comparing this introduction to that of the 1st symphony shows his maturing
style (it would also be a good paper topic). This intro has two main themes
which are in turn developed. His innovation transitional strategy previously
discussed reappears: extracting a motive, developing it and fashioning it
as a segue. Or, foreshadowing the coming theme by extracting a motive from
it to form its own segue (finale). Here the segue seamlessly connects the
intro and the exposition. Both themes of the exposition can be subdivided
and each component can be traced back to the unifying motive. Look at page
84 and see how the vivace theme (unifying motive) forms the basis of the others
themes. Consider when the derivative is rhythmic, melodic, or both. He again
weaves a countermelody that accompanies the B theme (here B2), the bass motive,
and the final contrapuntal section of the exposition. The development is saturated
with counterpoint. The rhythmic motive periodically blasts into the texture.
The motive is treated fugally and imitatively. Beethoven switches the main
theme's orchestration in the recap to full orchestra versus its first appearance
with WWs. The coda immediately modulates but developmental procedures continue
as he places pedal point in the winds and a variation of the pedal in the
violins over a two measure ground bass figure. The harmony is simply tonic-dominant
for the most of the section (consider again how Mozart's chromaticism and
harmonies were ahead of the time).
- Mvmt 2 Allegretto - This movement again combine variation form with another
form, now song form with a trio. The five part sectional form weaves the countermelody
of variation 1, borrowed from the main theme, into the variations that follow.
The main point here is to consider how Beethoven consistently juxtaposes a
rhythmic motivic idea (theme) against a subsequent lyrical counter melody.
- Mvmt 3 Presto - Beethoven borrows Haydn's knack for false reprise in this
five part form as he alludes to a return that turns out to be another development.
Each statement of the theme is followed by a lengthy development per his desire
to continually expand and develop the scherzo.
- Mvmt 4 Allegro con brio - Sonata form (Haydnesque) Beethoven keeps the light
dance nature of the finale true to early classical traditions. He does this
with less development, thus less counterpoint and more theme motives (more
singable). The motivic unity of the first movement gives way to sectional
successions of motives, largely unrelated, in the finale. The main theme is
derived from the Irish folk song "Nora Creina" (see D on p.87).
Beethoven earned some extra money by composing accompaniments for Irish folk
tunes for George Thomson (publisher). Beethoven foreshadows the second theme
group by fashioning a transition from that group's theme. The closing section
turns harmonic, per Haydn, and loses its melodic focus. The development recalls
Haydn and Mozart as it begins with a verbatim restatement of the beginning
theme spread over several modulations (tonal contrast). There is little counterpoint
in this Haydnesque development (even the exposition uses repeat signs). The
coda returns to Beethoven's true form. It has more counterpoint the development
and retrieves the first theme.
Symphony No.8 in F major (1812).
- Overview - The 8th symphony marks the final culmination of classically derived
Beethoven symphonies. It continues the trends found in symphonies 1, 2, and
4 and presents a union of Beethoven's past and progressive tendencies. The
vestiges of the past include shorter overall lengths, clear forms and formal
elements, less expressiveness, a three part traditional and more lyrical minuet
(instead of his development rich scherzo), measured tremolo in mvmts. I and
II (violins), and a quicker second movement (sonatina). The trends carried
forward from symphonies 3, 5, and 7 include developmental codas in mvmts.
1 and 4, the use of counterpoint in developments and codas, imitation in the
second movement, and an orchestral style similar to symphony no. 7 featuring
contrasting choirs of WWs (with horns) and strings.
- Mvmt 1 Allegro vivace e con brio - No introduction. Tutti statement and
development of the principal theme's two sections. The third permeates this
movement. Motivic extracts form transitions (retrievals and foreshadowings).
The development features fugal treatment of the 1st theme (mm. 144-179) with
stretto (mm. 167-179). The recap omits some development and restates the themes.
The coda begins with a modulation and then develops the first themes. A 16
bar cadential extension features antiphony between the wind and string choirs
as they echo the final chord and then retrieve the first tune.
- Mvmt 2 Allegretto scherzando - The sonatina style (binary form) of the second
mvmt points to the past per Haydn. The winds were traditionally featured in
this typically understated movement, but not here as Beethoven features the
strings on the first two themes. The form breaks down into three melody groups
with transitions. The second section features some thematic variation (substitutes
for development) of the themes and the coda simply truncates the first theme.
- Mvmt 3 Tempo di Menuetto - Beethoven retrieves the classic minuet in lieu
of the more developmental scherzo for the third movement - but not totally
devoid of development. It is similar to the 1st symphony's minuet. This work
is more lyrical and less rhythmic (often mutually exclusive traits). Both
second sections are lightly developmental - without dense counterpoint. Motivic
extraction provides the closing theme. The scoring reverts to the past as
winds are featured in the trio (divertimento and early symphony).
- Mvmt 4 Allegro vivace - Compared to the other movements, this is a complex
form - a sonata-rondo with tight motivic construction, contrapuntal development,
and lengthy codas (Beethoven's progressive side returns). Beethoven surprises
everyone with a melodic interruption in measure 17 that lasts a full measure
(C# in F major). The development begins in tonic (like many preclassical works)
and features fugato treatment of the A2 theme and dense contrapuntal treatment.
Before the recap, the theme is presented in A major and the strange C# is
then harmonized, foreshadowing the full explanation to come in the coda. The
recap restates the exposition including the C#. The coda begins with modulations
that eventually prepare the C# as the dominant in F# minor before continuing
to rework the other themes. A new theme is introduced as the coda combines
elements of recap and development. A 64 measure closing formula, the longest
he ever used, winds toward the ending comprised of 6 consecutive authentic
cadences and 14 repetitions of the final chord.
Review concepts:
- Understand the classical and romantic groupings of his symphonies and know
a little about Nos. 6 (Pastoral - programmatic/nature) and 9 (sym + voice)
inconjunction with those in the required listening section.
- Many scholars remark that Beethoven's symphonies simultaneously mark the
apogee of the classical period and introduce romantic period trends. Explain
how this is so?
- How, or why, did Beethoven change the minuet into the scherzo? What changed
in regards to form, development, and character?
- How does orchestration change with Beethoven?
- How does the art of transition change with Beethoven?
- Many scholars talk about how Beethoven juxtaposes rhythmic themes against
lyrical themes, give an example of this.
- How does Beethoven manifest romantic phrases like: "art for art's sake,"
"the rise of the great man," and so forth, discuss how the position
of the musician changed over time.
- How was Beethoven received in his own day?
- Who commissioned his first large public concert?
- Explain how Beethoven innovated sonata form.
Back to Top
Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Overview:
Many elements change in the wake of Beethoven:
- Two practices evolve in the wake of Beethoven: absolute and programmatic
music. A rivalry develops between them and the debate at times is rather intense.
- The number of symphonies, as a genre in 'absolute' terms, drops significantly
per composer and for the period as a whole. Composers were confronted with
the problem of what to do with the symphony after Beethoven. He had expanded,
developed, and innovated symphonic form to what many consider to be its final
conclusion. His shadow loomed large over anyone wanting to work in the symphonic
medium - hence the push toward programmatic designs.
- Programmatic composers metamorphose the symphonic concept into symphonic
poems (Liszt) and tone poems (R. Strauss).
- Cyclical ideas like the idée fixe (Berlioz) and the leitmotif
(Wagner) become the new standard unifiers. Thematic transformation
(Liszt) raises the cyclical concept to another level.
- Generally speaking, symphonic form is a tonal form - a collection of movements
with formal constraints dependent upon tonal introduction, contrast, and recall.
Thematic recall, born of the rounded binary, concerto, and Da Capo design,
add further structural unity. These elements are musical elements devoid of
programmatic intent. Once the tonal and formal design is altered beyond recognition,
as with Wagner (tonal) and Strauss (formal), the traditional concept of the
symphony no longer exists. These changes occur in the hands of the programmatic
composers. Their formal and tonal designs are program derived - not dependent
upon absolute idioms. In many ways this change recalls the debate between
Artusi and Monteverdi. It was Monteverdi's "secunda practice" that
caused such a stir with traditionalists. The unprepared dissonances, unusual
leaps, and chromaticism that shocked his contemporaries were not musically
derived, but were instead derived from the lyrical content.
- Melody becomes more personal, expressive, less formulaic and periodic. Expression
is often realized through increased dissonance and chromaticism - melodically,
harmonically, and tonally (remember Mozart?). These trends manifest in all
romantic composers but Wagner pushes chromaticism to the extreme. Distant
and unexpected modulations begin to appear.
- Strict contrapuntal development and procedure declines while the freer use
of countermelodies and other contrapuntal melodic strategies expand amid the
quest for lyric melodies (Berlioz and Tchaikovsky). These long spun melodies
with elaborate extensions and tangents often have more nested motivic development
than most Beethoven symphonies. Brahms once remarked that any melody that
sounded splendidly tunefully and natural, as if it was conceived in an instant,
surely took many hours to create. Cyclic ideas become the main unifier.
- Forms vacillate from miniature to massive. New forms include the symphonic
poem, tone poem, music drama, program symphony, and lyric works for solo piano.
Concertos, string quartets, and other pre-romantic forms also continue. The
concept of a four movement work with breaks between movements, gradually melts
into one long, complete, fully integrated work in the hands of many romantics.
- Orchestration probably marks the most innovative romantic trend. Composers
worked toward a more integrated presentation of melody that involved many
instruments from several sections. The dual choirs of strings and winds melt
into cross sectional blends of romantic timbral contrast. Composers continue
to expand the orchestra. The quest to combine instrumental and vocal forces
continues in the hands of Mahler, Wagner, and others.
- The character of the movements also changed. Some scherzos are slow, others
are quick. Some finales are somber and nolonger dance oriented: Brahms' Sym.
No. 4 is a passacaglia/chaconne, several of Mahler's finales are serious and
feature the voice (Primeval Light).
- Consider the trends born in the classic era that expand in the romantic:
- Expansion of the size and range of the symphony - Beethoven.
- Expansion of form -Beethoven.
- Elision between movements - Beethoven.
- Woodwinds and brass focus/independence - Beethoven.
- Voice as an addition to the symphony - Beethoven.
- Developmental forms/structures - Begins with Haydn then Beethoven.
- Motivic unity - Haydn, Mozart (mainly No.40), and Beethoven
- Cyclical treatment - Haydn and Beethoven.
- Chromaticism and dissonance (melodic and harmonic) - Largely Mozart.
- Lyrical melody - Mozart then Beethoven.
- Programmatic/extramusical content - Haydn (Le Soir, Le Midi, Le Matin,
and the Lamentation) and Beethoven's 6th symphony.
Romantic traits:
- The concept of patronage, where the composer is an employee of the church
or court, is replaced by entrepreneurial endeavors, commissions, concert series,
publications, etc. - Haydn's life is an example of this transition.
- The concept of functional music is replaced by art for art's sake - without
need of explanation. The vision of the composer is paramount - not subservient
to the whims of the church, nobility, or public. The artist begins to see
his or her self as nobility (or even greater) because of their gift and talent.
Beethoven said, "I look around me and I'm better than every man I see."
He even paid for a dining bill by writing a short composition on the wall,
telling the owner, "here, this will more than pay for the bill"
(my paraphrase). Compare this mentality with composers working during the
council of Trent (Gesualdo and Palestrina), Bach pleading for more money from
the city council and complaining about his inept musicians, and, Mozart suffering
from his own inability to work within the church/court system. Haydn was a
self made millionaire in today's terms by the time he died. Beethoven sponsored
his own first concert. It lasted over 4 hours and included, among other works,
his first symphony and his first piano concerto.
- What was an international style, from the baroque through the classic period,
becomes an individual style with often nationalistic overtones. Composer's
strive to be innovative and unique. They want to separate their works from
the stereotypes around them. The romantic period marks the birth of the individual.
- Geopolitical reasons also factor into this equation. The symphonic form
was seen by many as an elitist product whose target market was those of privilege
- this is especially so of the minuet. The American and French revolutions
sparked an international quest for freedom and self determinism. The rise
of the common man. Forms associated with bureaucracy of the past: church,
state, and nobility in particular, were less popular. Consider how it influenced
the transition in opera towards librettos that related more to the common
people. Also consider how the industrial revolution begins to affect the public:
mass migrations to the cities, long difficult work days, and the poverty associated
with this global change.
Only 15 or so composers from this lists on pp. 98-99 continue to appear on
modern concert programs. From that list, maybe 50-60 works enjoy continued popularity
(Stedman's list is a bit conservative in this area).
Back to Top
Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Franz Schubert (1797 - 1828; 1812)
Schubert lived to the age of 31 and still managed to write over 900 works,
including 9 symphonies. His life was quite secluded and most of his works, especially
the larger ones, were not performed until after his death. He studied with Antonio
Salieri at the Viennese Imperial court (Salieri also taught Mozart, Beethoven,
and Liszt). His accomplishments include works for voice (several operas, Lied,
and Song Cycles), string quartet, and piano. He lived a very meager and humble
life. Financial troubles caused him to sell his possessions several times, including
his piano. He was also a guitarist and several of his works were first conceived
on guitar then transferred to piano - often because he had no piano at the time.
He dedicated his life to his music with the exception of a failed school teaching
stint (his father was a school master). There has been a bit of speculation
regarding his alternative life style. His quest for knowledge was immense and
he even began counterpoint lessons a month before he died from syphilis. A friend
of his remarked that "everything he touched turned to song" (Yudkin,
p.326). His first 6 symphonies point more to Haydn and Mozart than Beethoven.
His commonalties with Haydn and Mozart include:
- Classical orchestral size
- string focus in most fast movements.
- Galant rhythms (rushing 1/8th notes).
- His first 3 symphonies have introductions that retrieve elements of the
French overture.
- The first 5 symphonies have minuets, not scherzos, though their character
is more scherzo than menuetto.
- Repetition with key contrast is his primary developmental device.
His more original aspects include:
- More color orchestration, especially in keeping the violins an octave apart
in many melody lines.
- More adventuresome key relationships - many median relationships.
- His use of folk melodies (an ensuing romantic trait). Bear in mind that
these elements also show up in Haydn and Beethoven.
- Extreme focus on melody - he's very much an extension of Mozart in this
way.
His last two symphonies show his maturing style:
- Increased brass writing.
- Greater emphasis on WWs than Beethoven - Schubert often introduces themes
with them.
- More expressive (lyrical)
- Larger works, a la Beethoven.
Symphony No.1
- Slow intro (Fr. overture) sets up exposition and development.
- Classic Alberti bass accompanies main theme in finale.
- Finale rhythm is galant style rush of 1/8th notes.
Symphony No.2
- Slow intro (Fr. overture) mixes dotted rhythms with Schubertian octave scoring.
Appoggiaturas are very galant.
- Mvmt 2 is variation form with rounded binary theme. Solo WWs are featured
in several variations.
- Minuet with scherzo personality (like No.1). Development is thematic repetition
over several key areas.
- Mvmt IV is rondoesque procession of themes in a repeated exposition with
an extended development of the first theme.
Symphony No.3
- Intro is similar No.2.
- Mvmt I has some cyclical aspects.
- Mvmt II is simple (early classical style).
- Mvmt III Minuet like no.2 (scherzo style with folk theme trio).
- Mvmt IV Presto vivace is very Haydnesque. Dance meter (6/8) galant tempo.
Typical Schubertian development - more tonal than motivic - with several distant
modulations.
Symphony No.4
- This work emulates Beethoven's C minor quartet (scherzo and major/minor
contrasts).
- Intro is less Fr. overture derived with only a few melodic flourishes (ornamental
scale runs). Canonic activity between bass and soprano is interesting and
unlike Schubert. The Allegro's rush of 1/8s recalls the galant rhythm. Schubert
modulates through several median and distant keys.
- Mvmt II is simple in design with Rococo measured tremolo
- Mvmt III minuet is for all purposes now a scherzo - very little of the earlier
form remains except for the folk like trio.
- Mvmt IV is another finale which is build on a series of alternating thematic
material (rococo). This obfuscates any large scale melodic design. He reverts
to the old practice of using the galant rhythm (rushing 1/8ths) to unify the
work. The development is a series of key changes.
Symphony No.5
- Is many ways modeled on Mozart's G minor symphony No. 40 and is his most
popular early symphony (Longyear, 72).
- Has no intro. Is similar to the finale of No.3 - galant rush of 1/8th notes
and small orchestra.
- Mvmt II is a simple rounded binary with repeat brackets for both sections
(very preclassical). Measured tremolo accompanies the main theme.
- Mvmt III continues to be a point of expansion for Schubert. This minuet
is also scherzo-like and each section has been expanded - including the folkish
trio.
- Mvmt IV the finale is again very much in the style of Haydn: rounded binary
outline and the exposition is repeated.
Symphony No.6 (Rossini Style)
- Symphony No.6 is a bit unique being Schubert's single symphonic imitation
of the Italian style. Slow intro recalls the Fr. overture style but now combined
with tighter motivic design and more expressive dynamics. Rossini's overture
style is borrowed: grace notes on triplets in WWs and strings, parallel thirds,
etc. point to the allegro's Italian opera overture grand curtain raiser style.
- Mvmt II continues the Rossini borrowing - a very lyrical Italianate tune
(accented dissonances, triplet embellishments, etc.). The middle section features
Italianate grace note figures.
- Mvmt III is now labeled a scherzo for the first time - its length and development
are his most extensive yet. Italian um-pah-pah accompaniment in the trio.
- Mvmt IV has sonata formal elements but reduces to a series of three thematic
groups in the first section that is repeated with slight tonal contrasts for
a development, ending with a recap.
Symphony No.9 (The Great C Major)
- Numbering and chronology problems plague Schubert's cataloguing. No.9 use
to be called No.7. He has 8 complete symphonies. Chronologically, the 7th
is the Unfinished and the (Great) C major is the 8th. His orchestration is
larger and similar to Beethoven: WWs in pairs, horns, trumpets, 3 trombones,
timpani, and strings. The movements are longer and more complex and motivic
unity/design displaces much of the folk theme emphasis. This is his largest
and most ambitious work. Schumann said it had a "heavenly length"
and it had a large impact on later symphonists, especially his most logical
successor, Anton Bracken (Longyear, 75).
- Mvmt I - The slow intro is much more original and in rondo form. The themes
(exposition) are developed (for Schubert that usually means repeated/extended)
as soon as each is introduced. The development works out each theme, simultaneously
at times in a very Beethovenesque manner. (Play this
development - its his best).
- Mvmt II - Sonatina style that reverts to his classical treatment of mvmt
II in the earlier symphonies.
- Mvmt III - This scherzo expands to a complete sonata form per Beethoven.
The trio does not reduce or simply state a folk song but instead presents
a lyrical theme with full orchestral force.
- Mvmt IV - Another finale that presents a succession of three theme groups.
Each are motivically unified and developed as soon as introduced (Schubert
style - repeated and motivically extended in various tonalities). The frequent
key changes in the development are typical Schubert relationships. The coda
becomes another development section (Beethoven) for the main themes with tonal
contrast.
Study Examples
Schubert: Symphony No.8, b minor (Unfinished) See footnote for analysis and
score (Stedman, p.105)
- Overview - This work is important for its lyricism and is accordingly one
of the top five most performed works. It is a total departure from his early
works. It is also important as the WWs become the primary purveyors of thematic
material - a true innovation. Schubert's expressive orchestral scoring shows
a lot of parity between the choirs - though brass is still used for accent
and harmonic support. He also scores the cello and bass separately at times
in each movement. The formal innovation is significant. Schubert's first theme
is lyrical as opposed to rhythmic. In fact, all of his themes are lyrical:
3 themes in the exposition including a lyrical rerendering in the development.
The permeating lyricism of the romantic period and the arrival of a lyrically
based sonata form is seen in this work by Schubert.
- Mvmt I Allegro moderato - Again, he innovates the sonata form first theme
by making it lyrical as opposed to a 'rhythmic attention getter.' The traditionally
rhythmic nature of first movement allegro A themes had been in place since
the sinfonia. The A theme divides into two sections. The first (strings) introduces
the second (main - WWs) which then serves, along with the B theme, as the
main objects of the development. The exposition features three lyrical themes.
The recap omits the introductory segment. The development is extensive but
lyrical since the main theme is varied, treated canonically, and set with
a countermelody. The whole design hints at cyclical thematic treatment. The
introductory material permeates the recap and the coda and the second theme
idea recurs in the closing section.
- Mvmt II Andante con moto - This sonatina form hints at a development section
at the end of the exposition by canonically treating the B theme. Its minor
- major contrasts (C# minor - Db major) in the second theme form a particularly
appealing moment (Longyear, 72).
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847; 1836)
Mendelssohn was the son of banker and a member of affluent society. He was
also Jewish and therefore persecuted because of this by Wagner (posthumously)
and others. His family did everything possible to conform - even converting
at an early point to Christianity (Felix was 7). His compositions aside, he
was equally innovative as an early conductor (Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and
later the Berlin Opera) and orchestrator, and a champion of prior composers.
He premiered Schubert's Great C Major symphony when it was discovered
and also premiered Schumann's symphony No.1. His revival, at age 20, of JS Bach's
St. Matthew's Passion is the prime example. Its performance was a huge success
and led to a resurgence of JS Bach's works. It marks the main point in music
history when musicians quit rejecting the past as antiquated and obsolete, but
instead revived it with reverence and appreciation. Mendelssohn remarked, "of
course - Bach's music needs to be re-orchestrated... To think that it should
be a Jew and an actor (Mendelssohn's friend) who give back to the people the
greatest of all Christian works." (Yudkin, p.249) His creative output includes
numerous piano works (Songs Without Words) and several string quartets
and quintets. He is best known for his orchestral works.
Mendelssohn wrote 5 symphonic works and some incidental music. One of the symphonic
works, No. 2 (Lobgesang), combines symphonic form with a cantata. The rest are
four movement forms. His style extends the classical style in many ways:
- His forms are conservative.
- His tonal schemes are conservative.
- He is not a chromatic composer. He uses some melodic dissonance for expressive
affect, but is in general not chromatic.
- His harmonies generally reflect those of Haydn and Mozart with the exception
of a V13 chord at some cadences, more focus on second inversion chords, and
some parallel harmonies (consecutive minor chords for instance).
- He was, as mentioned, an avid Bach admirer and was a master of contrapuntal
technique - as can be seen in his developmental procedures. He played the
Bach keyboard works (as did Schumann), and subsequently wrote in several baroque
forms: chorales, preludes, and fugues.
- He rarely expands the late 18th century orchestral concept: WWs in pairs,
horn, trumpet, timpani, and strings.
- His order of movements and individual movements are generally conservative
except: he reverts to a scherzo like minuet for his first symphony (III);
the Scottish (Sym. No.3) has a fast II (scherzo) and a slow III; the Italian
(Sym. No.2) uses the Låndler (song) form for III and has a saltarello
as IV; and the Reformation (Sym. No.5) has a fast (scherzo) II and a chorale
with variation for IV.
- He's not considered a programmatic composer though he did express extramusical
content in his Midsummer Night's Dream incidental music and vague inferences
in his Italian and Scottish symphonies.
- His orchestration is generally rooted in the late 18th century, though he
does add trombones and extra horns in two symphonies. He has a penchant for
pizzicato.
Symphony No.1 (1824 - age 15)
- strange second movement form and key scheme. This modified sonata form moves
through Eb, Cb, Bb, B, and Eb. Any hints of development are by tonal contrast.
The finale has fugal development section and more counterpoint in the coda.
Symphony No. 2 (Lobgesang)
- 3 movement sinfonia introduction (blast from the past) followed by a ten
movement cantata (uses variation form due to the text's verses). Commemorates
Gutenberg's invention of movable type 400 years earlier (check
this out).
Symphony No. 3 (Scottish)
- Considered to be his finest symphony and is skillfully linked by motto themes
(for a topical analysis, including motivic breakdown we will look at Longyear,
pp.91-93, and possibly his article "Cyclic Form and Tonal Relationships
in Mendelssohn's "Scottish" Symphony," In Theory Only, IV
(1979), 38-48.)
- The earliest four movement symphony designed to be performed without a break
between movements. Mendelssohn wrote this in his directions and also supplied
"attaca" in the score.
- AB(B is development)A intro leads into the sonata Allegro. Extensive counterpoint
in the development.
- Mvmt II is a folk song based scherzo that resembles a sonata form.
- Mvmt III is slow and lyrical.
- The finale has a new tune in the coda that resembles a tune in mvmt I (thus
cyclical).
Symphony No. 5 (Lobgesang)
- The Reformation symphony commemorates Martin Luther's confession of 1530.
It borrows motives and tunes from Protestant songs and a chorale prelude ends
the work (typical of Cantata form). The intro borrows the Parsifal theme which
recurs in the ensuing allegro (cyclical).
Study Examples
Symphony No. 4 in A major (Italian)
- Overview: Mendelssohn's Italian symphony, like his other symphonic works,
points to the continuation of earlier classical Viennese traditions. It is
his most popular symphony. He is conservative and nostalgic in regards to
form, chromaticism, and tonal scheme. The Saltarello finale recalls the renaissance
in name and sectional treatment and baroque/classical dance character. His
contrapuntal skills were exceptional for the time and mark his connection
to Bach and Baroque style/forms in general. His symphonies contain a fair
amount of developmental counterpoint during a time when those practices were
neglected in lieu of lyrical melody and other expressive procedures. His scoring
utilizes late 18th century forces and strategies including a more traditional
role for the WWs. His more progressive traits include motivic connections
between the first and final movements (cyclical - like Beethoven's Sym. No.7)
and a waltz style mvmt III.
- Mvmt I Allegro vivace - This sonata form features octave string scoring
(Schubertian) for the main theme. A new theme appears in the development (Mozart/Beethoven)
and treated fugally for 42 bars and reaches four voices at times (baroque
influence). The principle theme motive (2 bars) are then weaved into the fabric
and eventually take precedence as the fugue activity dissipates. The fugue's
main theme is then presented by the full orchestra for 21 bars (274-295) until
a ground bass passage segues to the recap. (consider the numerous baroque
elements).
- Mvmt II Andante con moto - Slow movement in sonatina form, walking baroque
bass line countermelody, WW focus and presentation, and four voice counterpoint
at times (so many preclassical/baroque nuances). His cross-sectional treatment
of the themes (WWs and strings - with WWs dominant) look to the future along
with his octave doubling of the themes.
- Mvmt III Con moto moderato - Folk style influences (romantic trait) that
point to the waltz. It looks like a traditional minuet form but sounds continuous
due to extensive development of the theme.
- Mvmt IV Saltarello - Binary form (the original renaissance structure presented
dance themes in successive contrasting sections with repeats). The recurring
A theme followed by different themes for each section give the work a rondo
feel, but the continuous development of the theme works against that notion.
A triplet figure provides motivic unity for the first half. The fugal and
antiphonal activity, along with other traits already mentioned show Mendelssohn's
penchant for the past.
A Midsummer Night's Dream
- Mendelssohn's best orchestral writing appears in his programmatic overtures.
Their connection to the play often leaves them neglected in the literature.
It is an excellent example of sonata form and along with his other dramatic
overtures, stands "midway between those of Beethoven and the symphonic
poems of Liszt." (Longyear, p.90)
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Robert Schumann (1810-1856; 1833)
Schumann suffered from mental illness throughout much of his life,
but it intensified drastically in his latter years ("not schizophrenia
but a manic-depressive psychosis" - Longyear, p.98). His psychosis and
creative output seem to coincide during his moderately manic moments (see below,
from Yudkin, p.260). He aspired to become a concertizing pianist but severely
damaged his ring finger with a device he invented in 1832 to train his fingers
for independence. With his playing career over, he focused on composition and
his wife, pianist extraordinaire Clara Schumann, performed many of his (and
her own) works. Her notoriety as a performer often clouded his own success and
visibility. Clara was invited to perform at party in Moscow, after the performance
the diplomat introduced him to the others as Mr. Clara Schumann. The relationship
between Clara and Johannes Brahms grew to a scandalous point after Robert's
illness worsened and he was institutionalized. He died of self-starvation two
years later in 1856. His importance as a composer, music critic, historian,
and music journal editor cannot be overestimated. He revered Bach's Well Tempered
Clavier, playing through it regularly and working diligently with counterpoint
- even writing fugues based on B-A-C-H. He occasionally used the letters of
his name, and other words to derive key relationships and motives. Much of his
romantic influence was literary - his father owned a bookstore and he became
a voracious reader. It is through Schumann that the literary concept of romanticism
begins in music. His wrote many character works for solo piano. Carnival
presents a masked ball procession of short character pieces that represent his
own dual personalities of Florestan and Eusebius, among other characters (Bach,
Clara, Paganini, etc.). His song cycle Dichterliebe, along with those
Schubert, and Wolf, form the romantic period bench marks in this genre.
Schumann's symphonic style bridges aspects of the Viennese tradition
with romantic trends. He works to expand forms and increases the role of the
brass section by often using 4 horns, 2 trumpets, and 3 trombones. His brass
focus gives his works a heavy, dense sound at times. His use of counterpoint
relies on countermelodies more than imitation, unlike Mendelssohn. Schumann
conveys romanticism through chromaticism (lyricism), melodic dissonance, and
tonal experimentation. He, like Mendelssohn often features appoggiaturas and
suspensions in slow movements. His formal innovations are the most important:
- Retrieves themes in later movements (cyclical themes - this idea begins
motivically with Beethoven's 5th.)
- More continuous symphonies - either a very short pause or no break at all
for almost half of all his movements.
- Later themes are at times derived from the motives of earlier themes (another
cyclic device). This idea permeates his fourth symphony. It also explains
some trio themes - based on the scherzo.
- Sonata forms often leave out the development or the recap or combines both
into one section.
- New melodic ideas appear in developments and codas (Mozart, Beethoven, and
Schubert).
- The scherzo continues its experimental persona.
- Programmatic trends - His program for his first symphony (subtitles) was
later withdrawal and he later avoided admitting any direct source of inspiration.
He also changed the fourth symphony's title from Symphony Fantasy to simply
Symphony No. 4. His title switch would suggest a rejection of programmatic
trends and a return to absolute ideology. His works, especially those for
piano, reflect varying degrees of programmatic intent.
- Schumann has been accused of poor orchestration by several authors. But
Schoenberg correctly points out that much of the "Schumannesque quality
would be lost if the orchestration were changed." (Longyear, 103)
- In the end, he's more a classicist than a progressive romantic. His impact
is slight but noteworthy. His output totals four symphonies and a fifth work
that is like a symphony without a slow movement.
Symphony No. 2
- Overview:
- More cyclic than No. 1. Large cyclic recall reminiscent of Mendelssohn.
The motto theme by the brass recurs at the climax of the scherzo and finale.
The main theme of the slow movement becomes the second theme of the finale.
- Mvmt 1 - The introduction supplies material for some of the first movement
themes. New theme appears in the he coda.
- Mvmt 2 - A scherzo with two trios all in duple meter (innovative).
- Mvmt 3 - Song form (ABA)
- Mvmt 4 - Development and recap are combined. Coda retrieves the intro
theme and introduces three more themes. The coda sums up elements from
the entire symphony.
Symphony No. 3
- Overview:
- Another scherzo second movement. The third movement is an ABA song form
(Aria). The slow fourth movement preludes the fifth. The two movements
work together in intro/allegro form. Several themes of the fifth are derived
from the fourth's material and a new theme appears in the coda.
Symphony No. 4
- Overview:
- More cyclic than any of his other symphonies. It is a tightly organized
work thematically. Every movement is interrelated and based on organic
motives like the Beethoven 5th; a technique that can be seen as late as
Sibelius' 7th symphony. Mvmts III and IV are connected
- Originally titled Symphony Fantasy (1841), Schumann later renamed
it Symphony No. 4 (1853). New themes abound
- Mvmt 1:
- Sonata form - Main theme of is derived from the end of the intro.
- Two new themes in the development.
- New theme in coda that returns in the 4th mvmt's coda.
- First mvmt has no recap.
- Mvmt 2:
- Romanza - Aria form (ABA).
- B section theme derived from intro of mvmt 1.
- Mvmt 3:
- Scherzo - Form is S-T-S-T. The trio's double return acts like a
large binary.
- 2nd theme comes from mvmt 1 intro.
- Mvmt 4:
- Sonata form - main theme hails from mvmt I's first development theme
(m.121).
- New theme in coda comes from mvmt I's coda theme.
Study Examples
Symphony No. 1 in Bb major, Op.38 (Spring - subtitles later removed by Schumann)
- Overview:
- Program later removed by Schumann but modern performances still include
the subtitles from the poem.
- Large brass section 4 hrns., 2 tpts., and 3 trbs reminiscent of Beethoven.
The first mvmt is motivically unified per Beethoven. The second presents
lyric melody in the romantic style with melodic chromaticism: long appoggiaturas
and suspensions. The scherzo has two trios and one is in duple.
- I disagree with Stedman's statement about Schumann not being able to
handle an orchestra (p.122). Remember Schoenberg's statement and also
consider that Stedman picked the first symphony - who's first symphony
(so far - Berlioz is coming) has been the apogee of their career? The
fourth would have been a better choice for several reasons. He seems to
consistently pick "the most popular" symphony by any given composer
- popularity and art do not always coincide (read Ives's commentaries
to get the face blushing details on this topic).
- Schumann's lose handling of form: omitting sections, combining sections,
adding second trios (some in duple), and so forth point to coming trends
in the romantic period when form becomes very nebulous indeed and metrical
character is often altered.
- Mvmt 1 Andante un poco maestoso, Allegro molto vivace:
- Motto intro theme (horns) unifies and permeates the mvmt. The main
theme is introduced, immediately developed and then extended.
- Development is more tonal than developmental - features a countermelody
in 1/16ths that accompanies the motto motive (repeated and sequenced
- it unifies the dev.).
- Recap is truncated by leaving out the second half of the
main theme, much of the motivic extensions, and the closing theme
section.
- Coda - a lyric theme is introduced (438) and works in contrast to
the recurring motto theme.
- Somewhat classical scoring. Some measured tremolo
- Mvmt 2 Larghetto:
- Aria form (ABA)
- Melodic dissonances (appoggiaturas and suspensions) present the
lyric, romantic period style melody.
- Theme restated in V in the B section and new motivic theme is introduced
(C).
- A section is repeated with reduced orchestration.
- Scherzo theme is foreshadowed in the closing section.
- Various orchestral doublings provide a distinct romantic color.
- Mvmt 3 Molto vivace
- Scherzo has five part form with two trios (first is duple), transition,
and coda. (S-T1-S-T2-Tr.-S-C)
- Several sections are abbreviated.
- Mvmt 4 Allegro animato e grazioso
- The differences in titles point to the continuation of the serious
1st mvmt and the dancelike finale.
- Sonata form - Exp. has 3 segment main theme and a secondary theme.
- Dev. juxtaposes the main and secondary themes contrapuntally and
sequentially (m.117)
- Recap omits first tune (1st section of main theme).
- Coda features variation of the opening theme.
- 4 part WW presentation of A3 theme with string pizz on strong beat
melody notes is unique and colorful. Some measured tremolo.
Back to Top
Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Program Music
Program music describes works where composers depict concrete
elements of a story, image, or element in nature. In the furthest sense, every
musical element, be it form, rhythm, meter, orchestral color/timbre, dynamics,
etc., is fashioned from the program. Similar instances occur in plainsong, in
16th century Masses and motets, English virginal music, 16th century madrigals,
French harpsichord music of the 17th century, and 17th and 18th century operas,
oratorios, and cantatas. Rarely are form and themes derived from extramusical
ideas in these early works. A few exceptions would include the bird and battle
chansons of Parisian chanson composer Janequin, some 14th century Italian caccias,
and the Biblical sonatas of Kuhnau.
Beethoven said that his Pastoral Symphony was "an expression
of emotion rather than tone-painting" even though the fourth movement (The
Storm) is programmatic. Berlioz provided a written program for his Symphonie
Fantastique that confirms his intentions that the symphony could be an instrument
of drama. The prevailing romantic concept placed music as the highest of all
art forms because it could express what words could not, and also because it
could not be captured in solid form like paintings, sculpture, and poetry. Mendelssohn
kept his programmatic ideas subservient to classical forms in his dramatic overtures
(incidental play music). Liszt leaned to the other extreme by designing extremely
programmatic works and supplying them with detailed programs to ensure the correct
interpretation. Liszt defined the "Tone-poet" as someone who "reproduces
his impression and the adventures of his soul in order to communicate them,
while the mere musician manipulates, groups and connects the tones according
to certain established rules, and, thus playfully conquering difficulties, attains
at best to novel, bold, unusual and complex combinations" (from Liszt's
essay on Berlioz and his Harold Symphony (1855) as found in Oliver Strunk's
Source Readings in Music History).
Strauss' symphonic poems Ein Heldenleben (1898) and Symphonia
Domestica (1903) mark the high point of the symphonic program. The later
portrays the conjugal love and one can even hear sheep bleating in his Don
Quixote. The concept that all music is by its nature an expression of some
type of program has been repeatedly attacked and defended. Hanslick's position
that any judgement about the value of the program must ultimately be a judgement
of the music itself defines the most commonly accepted view. (The foregoing
was synthesized from several sources including New Grove, the New College Encyclopedia
of Music, and Oliver Strunk's Source Readings in Music History).
The popular rise of program music led to a polarization between
those for it and against it. Programmatic musical devices run the gamut from
the very explicit, per Strauss, to the very oblique, Beethoven and Mendelssohn.
As one can imagine, with regards to Liszt's statement, programmatic composers
work to shed themselves of any formal, tonal, and traditional trappings of the
past. Connecting their work to prior norms and conventions would be an insult.
Back to Top
Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869; 1836)
From C.P.E. Bach and Stamitz until Berlioz marks a period of mostly
German-Viennese symphonic tradition. Berlioz is really the first French composer
to rise above that. His style is informed by it, especially by Beethoven's works
(9th symphony), but he remained distinctly original - that may be why his music
was misunderstood for so long (most theorists hail from the German tradition
- how many French theorists can you name besides Rameau? German/Austrian concepts
have dominated theory, especially counterpoint, for much of history). Berlioz
struggled financially for most of his life. Most of his musical output is related
in some way to financial necessity. He made most of his money not as a composer,
but as a conductor, and also by arranging Weber's and Gluck's operas for performance
in Paris. His monumental Treatise on Orchestration pioneered the science
of orchestration and is still required reading. His critical writings on music
provide a wealth of information and detail about his contemporaries and 19th
century musical style in general.
Berlioz is a supreme orchestrator. He wrote works in virtually
every medium that could include orchestra: symphony, concerto, opera, oratorio,
incidental music, dramatic overtures, and opera overtures. Simply put, Berlioz
transforms the nature of the symphony. He is the first to forge the programmatic
path in a flaming manner. He is the most significant innovator since Beethoven
and Longyear calls him "the true founder of the modern orchestra"
(Longyear, 138). He devises a cyclic unifying device, the idée fixe,
which permeates (haunts) each movement by changing rhythm, tempo, and/or harmony.
Both Harold in Italy (1834 - a hybrid symphony/concerto written for Paganini's
curiosity of the viola) and Symphonie Fantastique (1830) employ
the idée fixe. His dramatic symphony, Romeo and Juliet
and the "Band" symphony do not. He expands the orchestra. He divides
the melody between different instruments (at times difficult to perform but
very colorful). His operas, like Le Troyens, become the flagship models
for French Grand Opera. He calls his Damnation of Faust (1846) a "dramatic
legend." With its programmatic nature and combination of vocal soloists,
chorus, and orchestra, it anticipates elements of Wagner's music drama - except
it is unstaged. Berlioz's dedication to opera marks his departure from the symphony.
His efforts to raise the symphony to the programmatic level rest most upon his
dramatic legend (Faust - combines voice and orch.), Symphonie Fantastique,
and dramatic symphony (Romeo and Juliet). In the strictest sense,
only the Symphonie Fantastique qualifies as a symphony - the others are
hybrid structures involving voice (Faust, Romeo and Juliet) or the concerto
principle (Harold).
Berlioz studied orchestration at the Paris conservatoire. His
superb handling of the orchestral forces raises timbre and color to a formal
device (often by frequent revisions)- this is his main contribution along with
the cyclic idée fixe. Sixteen different scoring combination occur
within the 71 measure introduction of the Symphonie Fantastique He was
regularly ridiculed by the press for his huge, over-the-top, orchestral forces
but this actually happens rarely. The whole myth has been quite overblown for
too long now - please don't perpetuate it. He required large forces but used
them very judicially. He knew it took a large number of string players to get
a true pianissimo. His large brass sections were often used in small colorful
groups. He cross sectional groupings often required extra winds for color balance.
He is the first composer to understand and fully utilize the available advances
from the industrial revolution in instrument design. He also worked to orchestrate
ambient effects (echoes off stage, distant thunder, etc.) by moving musicians
or changing textures. His phrases are generally uneven (long with numerous suspensions)
and often imbued with a dance derived rhythm. He often reharmonized and reorchestrated
returning melodies. Contrapuntal elements were also at his command: canons,
imitation, but mainly combining melodies (Schumann or Beethoven's 9th: double
fugue variation in the finale) in codas or ending sections. His transitions
become as much a focal point as his themes. His harmonies are not often complex,
some parallel chords (Mendelssohn) occur. More striking is his use of unrelated
chords (non-directional) in succession or his free use of diminished 7th chords
(often for modulation). Most of his forms are loosely traditional. Rhythm, orchestration,
and tempo become structural unifiers for Berlioz. His dynamics swing wildly
at times. He (along with Chopin to some degree) weakens the structural aspects
of functional tonality since narrative and illustrative aspects take precedence
over traditional harmonic, rhythmic, and structural formulas (Longyear, 135-142).
Each of his works are unique, often tough to classify, and this makes him hard
to categorize. One thing is certain, he influenced every subsequent composer.
Study Example
Symphonie Fantastique, Op.14a (see footnote p. 126 for
score and extra commentary).
- Program synopsis: (read p.126 for a more detailed account). Each mvmt is
an opium induced vision between the young musician (presumably Berlioz) and
his beloved. The idée fix represents the young lady as explained
in the program by Berlioz.
- mvmt 1 - shows the depths of their love.
- mvmt 2 - shows her at the ball.
- mvmt 3 - he retreats to the country only to see her again.
- mvmt 4 - he dreams he kills her and hangs for it.
- mvmt 5 - the witches commemorate his death at the witches Sabbath. Cantus
firmus treatment is used as the Dies Irae chant provides a historical
musical connection. Click here for more on Dies
Irae.
Each mvmt has a different orchestral combination of the largest
forces to date: pic., 2 fl., 2 ob., Eng. hrn., 2 cl., 4 bass., 4 hrns.,
2 cor., 2 tpt., 3 trb., 2 tubas, 4 timp., aux. percussion, bells, harps,
and strings. The work uses traditional forms except for the finale which
is sectional. As a skilled contrapuntalist, Berlioz often juxtaposes themes
against themselves to create the movement's climax. Having the timpani then
the basses play four note chords is innovative.
- Mvmt 1 Reveries and Passions: Largo, Allegro agitato e appassionato assai.
(Copy Yudkin's description)
- The intro moves into the exposition. Berlioz focuses on strings and
winds. The 1/16th note feel recalls the galant style - but its not used
as a unifying device here. The development extends the second theme. The
recap returns the main theme in V and Berlioz omits part of the expositionary
material. The coda introduces a new theme, a countermelody for the idée
fixe, before concluding with a plagal cadence.
- Mvmt 2 A Ball: Allegro non troppo (Waltz)
- The strings, along with two harps, carry the waltz. WWs and horns provide
accent support with the WWs occasionally carrying the theme. He spread
each beat of the um-pah-pah rhythm between strings (1), harps (2), and
WWs (3) at times.
- Mvmt 3 In the Country: Adagio.
- He places the oboe off stage for echo an presentation of the opening
imitative passage. Chordal timpani strikes evoke gradually more distant
thunder (4 then 3 then 2 note events). An innovative use of timpani. The
idée fixe is woven throughout the countermelody material.
- Mvmt 4 March to the Gallows: Allegretto non tropo.
- Timpani concluded III and intros IV with another minor sonority. Four
note pizz chords in the contrabass (divisi) point to another unusual orchestration
- this time dark and somber. The coda supplies a new theme and the idée
fixe reappears just before the last chord.
- Mvmt 5 Witch Sabbath: Larghetto, Allegro.
- The intro sets the mood for the finale. After the idée fixe
is parodied four bassoons and two tubas introduce the Dies Irae melody
as the theme of the second section. The I-V bells make an eerie pulse
that forms a ground motive. The witches dance marks the third section
which is rendered fugally. The dance tune and the Dies Irae combine in
the final section. The con legno (on the wood of the bow) accompaniment
in m.444 combined with the WW tremolo is an unusual effect.
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Franz Liszt (1811-1886; 1848)
Franz Liszt becomes music's first Liberace-type showman. He was
an international phenomenon and played the role perfectly. His virtuosic shows
left women passed out in the audience. He himself would feign exhaustion only
to regain composure in the nick of time and continue. Ladies adorned him with
numerous undergarments and room keys. He would begin the show by marching on
stage in his Cossack warrior outfit, complete with sword. He would remove his
gloves and sword, then cape, and then begin to play. His romantic liaisons were
numerous. Paganini did similar antics, including filing his strings so that
they would break at a pinnacle moment - obliging him to leap to another string
and continue in death defying fashion. But Paganini, suffering form the same
disfiguring disease as Abraham Lincoln, was not nearly as handsome a man as
Liszt.
Liszt, like many other romantic composers, was deeply influenced
by Berlioz. He knew after hearing the Symphonie Fantastique that his
path would be programmatic. Liszt's music derives from a wealth of writings,
paintings, and other influences. His main innovation lies in form. He largely
abandons the four movement symphony and typical sonata structure in his symphonic
poems and in his Dante program symphony. Faust uses altered sonata
forms and an aria with a later appended chorus. He borrows Berlioz's concept
of cyclical unity (idée fix) and begins using one or two principal
motives or themes to organize his works. His concept of Thematic Transformation
usually keeps the pitches intact while changing meter, rhythm, and harmony to
fit the mood or moment. His symphonic poems are generally one movement
and loosely organized. The main theme spins out motives for further development/continuation
(sequence/repetition) in a rhapsodic style (unfolding). His chromaticism further
weakens tonality and his progressions are untraditional. He, like Berlioz, uses
tempo, dynamic, metrical, and orchestral devices structurally. He uses Berlioz's
expanded orchestral pallet and extends it to regularly include 3 trumpets. His
orchestration, like that of Berlioz, is designed to effect, depict, or describe
his program. His programs describe the source and philosophy of his inspiration
without assigning them to particular orchestral effects. The listener derives
the connections. Strauss will assign these quite specifically. His two symphonies,
keep in mind his several symphonic poems, are Faust (1854, rev.1861 and
1880) and Dante (1856).
Study Example
The Damnation of Faust:(1854, rev.1861 and 1880)
- Overview: Faust is probably Liszt's greatest work. The third movement is
the prime example of thematic transformation. He often delays or ornaments
expected harmonic resolution through chromaticism. The lack of tonal structure
is compensated by motivic/thematic recall, chromatic line motion, and orchestral
recall. The natural alignment, via programmatic intent, of theme, dynamic,
meter, tempo, character, and orchestral pallet, sets up a type of sectional
organization that allows Liszt to create shades of recall. The listener begins
to associate with these events and that provides the large scale structural
design.
- The program for Faust is based on the life the Benedictine monk Georgius
Faust. The embellished story describes how Faust trades his soul to the devil
(Mephistopheles) in exchange for supernatural powers. Each main character,
Faust, Mephestopheles, and Gretchen (heroine/victim) is set as an individual
movement. The later appended chorus works as a coda to third mvmt.
- Mvmt I Faust: Lento assai, Allegro impetuoso. Themes were not assigned a
specific program by Liszt. Those assignments were decided by Humphrey Searle
after extensive research into the program and orchestration. See p.135 for
the subtitles. The French overture legacy of slow introduction followed by
an Allegro is noteworthy. Augmented triads, thus all 12 tones, comprise the
first theme. Five themes form the main focus along with some developmental
activity immediately following some of their entrances (see diagram, p. 136).
The recap omits the D theme and combines themes A and C (combining themes
reaches back to Beethoven, Schumann, and Berlioz).
- Mvmt II Gretchen: Andante soave - Aria form, subdued character, and lighter
textures point to earlier trends. Numerous solos and chamber textures. The
recall of a Faust themes (D) provides cyclical structure and narrative recall.
The intermingling of the Faust and Gretchen theme, marked dolce amoroso,
carries intimate narrative overtones. The coda presents a continued sense
of growing repose.
- Mvmt III Mephistopheles: Allegro vivace, ironico. This movement provides
the best study of Liszt's thematic transformation. It combines careful thematic
transformation and loose sonata form. The corruption of Faust by Mephistopheles
and his redemption through Gretchen's love forms the narrative. Liszt presents
this by juxtaposing the themes for Faust (3 themes) and Gretchen. The devil
fails to show up thematically. All the themes are parodied and transformed
except Gretchen's (unwavering love) and the first Faust theme. The corruption
of the other themes, and their subsequent restatement, portrays Faust's own
corruption and subsequent salvation. The setting and reworking of the Faust
themes form the prime example of thematic transformation. Moments of intensity
are created by thematic interruptions as themes compete for visibility in
the dialogue. The fugal moment of parody mirrors a similar instance in Berlioz's
Symphonie Fantastique finale. The later revision segues into the chorus
by way of a German +6 chord.
- Mvmt IV Choral finale or coda: The program's text for this section hails
from Goethe's Chorus Mysticus (Faust: end of second part). This coda
forms a point of release with its simpler setting and orchestration. The Gr.+6
chord returns at the end and is resolved by the tenor soloist as the lyric
"leads us on high." Feminine symbolism occurs as Liszt sets the
text "the eternal flame" to Gretchen's theme.
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Richard Wagner (1813-1883; 1848)
The Tristan chord opens the work Tristan
und Isolde. The chord caused quite a roar among early 20th century theorists
as they presented several competing theories to explain it. The most logical
arguments labels it as 1) a French augmented sixth chord with an appoggiatura
(f-b-d#'-g#' with the g# resolving to a); and, 2) a half-diminished seventh
chord (which occurs in reduced position (F-Ab-Cb-Eb). The latter looks fine
on paper but fails to explain the effect of the quartal spacing (F-B-Eb-Ab)
which has much to do with how it sounds; and, no theory to date fully explains
how it functions the way it does (also consider its appearance in Parsifal).
It played a significant role in the chromatic harmony practices of the late
19th and early 20th centuries. Eitherway, the chord has the reputation of "causing
a crisis in Romantic harmony .... and seems to have been crucial to the limitation
of the application of functional theory to harmonic analysis" (New Grove
XIX, 154).
Study Examples
Prelude and Liebestod (conclusion) from the music drama Tristan
und Isolde.
- This work, like most of his works, is based on a medieval legend: two young
lovers separated in life but finally united by death.
- The prelude immediately introduces the main leitmotiv - the yearning
motiv that never quite resolves (until the end of the Liebestod).
This motive permeates the entire prelude. Wagner creates a continuous work
that vacillates between regions where 1) short motives are combined into long
passages, and 2) regions where long phrases are deconstructed into shorter
motives (fragments). Tonal organization is pushed to the brink with Wagner.
His extreme chromaticism (melodic and harmonic) creates a constant ebb and
flow that never seems to resolve. The harmonies are rarely functional with
regions of layered dissonances, parallelism, and frequent elisions.
- Wagner described the form of the prelude as "one long succession of
linked phrases" (Frankenstein, 661).
- The Liebestod marks the moment when the two lovers are together in death.
Two leitmotivs form the basis for the entire movement: the love-death
motiv and the transcendental bliss motiv. Near the end the yearning
motiv and finally resolves harmonically - in the final chords.
- Wagner's orchestration moves frequently from the subtle to the extreme.
He pares his enormous orchestral forces down to a chamber group and then uses
every instrument to depict the emotions of his music drama.
- Wagner wrote his own librettos.
- His concept of Music Drama (gesamtkunstwerk) results in a total synthesis
of vocal and instrumental mediums - including staging and acting. Tristan
represents his mature style. His continous design culminates the trend in
opera away from formulaic recitative - aria design. The integration of the
voice with orchestra gives his works a polyphonic color.
- His works point to the last gasps of functional harmony. Pervasive chromaticism,
nonfunctional progressions, parallel harmonies, stagnant regions, and layered
dissonances become the last vestiges of the classic-romantic tradition. Wagner
works point to the eventual atonal practices of Schoenberg and Webern. The
dissolution of sonata form and symphonic form are seen in the symphonic poems
and tone poems of Liszt and Strauss, respectively.
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The Symphonic Poem
(Paraphrased from the entry Symphonic Poem in The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians.)
The symphonic poem lasted roughly from 1840 -1920s. Its programmatic
design, a very popular manifestation during the late romantic period, fell from
favor with the rise of absolute forms per expressionism. The goal was to represent
literature, nature, emotion, or art in musical terms. These issues again point
to the depth of the absolute - programmatic music debate. Programmaticism in
music extends back to Kuhnau's musical renderings of biblical texts, but the
main manifestation occurs with Beethoven's Pastoral symphony (no. 6) and Berlioz's
symphonie fantastique. These works provide the basic concepts used by virtually
every subsequent programmatic composer. Programmatic content also appears in
Beethoven's overtures to Egmont and Fidelio and in Mendelssohn's overture to
Shakespear's A Midsummer Night's Dream. The primary pioneer of symphonic
poems is Liszt. Works such as Hamet and Mazeppa elevate the medium to new heights
aesthetically and formally. It was in his works that the one movement design
and use of thematic transformation became staples of the genre. The poetic design
and use of thematic transformation also permeate his Faust and Dante
symphonies. Liszt, unlike others working in the genre, chose to convey poetic
content in a general way, not by creating explicit narratives - even though
his themes generally convey the broad ideas of the program in an obvious manner.
Liszt emplyed a loose eposodic (rhapsodic) design with thematic sections moving
unpredictably at times according to the narrative. Themes and motives are mutated
in various ways to derive the desired emotional affect. In the end, maintaining
formal intregity over such broad spans of time is difficult. The forms of the
works work from the program but musical strategies such as statement, contrast,
and restatement appear in varying degrees. Certain elements: sign motives, ascending
chromaticism, brass themes, and pauses, seem to appear in each work and is continued
by Wagner, Strauss, and others. The brass theme concept reaches back to Beethoven's
ninth symphony and Berlioz's King Lear.
The symphonic poem becomes a popular medium for nationalistic
devices as rhythms and folk melodies appear in the works of Smetana, Dvorak,
Musorgsky, and others. Smetana's The Moldau (1872-9) traces the local
river of the composer's youth from its inception as two streams to its fading
into the distance. Many points of the journey manifest musically, the streams
pervasive 1/16th notes, the slower moving but larger flowing river, and so forth.
The Moldau is one of six works in the symphonic poem cycle Ma vlast
(my country). In so doing, Smetana expands the concept of one movement into
a cycle of six works that is largely unified by two thematic ideas - one is
an old Czech hymn. Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Musorgsky convey Russia elements
thorugh the medium. Musorgsky's St. John's Night on the Bare Mountain (1867)
takes the listener on a journey through mythology and the Black Mass. French
traditions manifest first in the works of Berlioz, but not in true symphonic
poem form. Though Franck had actually written a symphonic poem prior to Liszt,
Debussy's Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1892-4) is probably the
best known of the genre. The works of Liszt and Strauss mark the beginning and
culmnation of the genre overall, and for Germany. Strauss' works rise the bar
for orchestral echnique and virtuosity. He extends the concept of symphonic
poem both in length and realism. His topics run the gamut from serious (settings
of Nietzsche's poetry) to light hearted (popular narravites like Don Juan).
his forms use transforming themes in combination with various traditional concepts:
vague sonata form, theme and variations (Don Quixote), rondo, etc. His themes
were often simple and descriptive with expressive chromaticism and powerful
orchestration. Don Quixote employs theme transformation and detailed expression
(Sheep Baaing per the brass, etc.). These moments point to an acute musical
wit and sense of humor.
The fall of the symphonic poem in the 20th century marks the rejection
of programmatic trends in general. The difficuties of applying literary form
to musical design held many unsolvable questions - music's natural need for
repetition has no literary counterpart and sonata form would make a strange
narrative. The best combinations can be found in the contrasting masculine and
feminine themes in Liszt's Hamlet, the variation design of Strauss' Don
Quixote and Dukas' The Sorcerer's Apprentice. However, the use of
the term Tone Poem in lieu of Symphonic Poem by Strauss denotes
just how far the medium had departed from symphonic designs.
Study Examples
Liszt
(Symphonic Poems)
Hamlet (Symphonic Poem - 1858; rev. 1876)
- Originally written as a prelude for the play, the connection to Shakespear's
Hamlet is vague and oblique. Slow and fast passages alternate according
to the tale. Tremolo strings provide tension while changes in dynamics, orchestration,
and tempo provides contrast. The structure is loose and continuous with an
overall ABA design that includes elements of sonata form (exposition, harmonic
development, and partial recapitulation).
Mazeppa (Symphonic Poem - 1851)
- "Mazeppa" comes from Victor Hugo's romantic novel of the same title. "He
(Mazeppa) dies at the end...and rises up again King!" Mazeppa is a Cossack
chief tied to a horse and sent galloping across the steppes, but is rescued
and made king in the end.
- The form is another loose ABA' design.
- See analytical supplement in anthology.
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Berich Smetana (1824-1884; 1854)
The Moldau
(Czech Nationalism - Symphonic Poem)
Dvorak and Smetana hail from Bohemia, an independent kingdom later
annexed by Austria and now part of Czechoslovakia. Smetana's most famous work
is his opera The Bartered Bride. He, like Dvorak, imbues his works with
nationalistic rhythms and themes. The opera is based on Bohemian folklore while
his symphonic poem, The Moldau, describes the flow of that river across
the Bohemian countryside. The poem's descriptive program conveys nature, beauty,
and national pride. This work one of six works in Smetana's nationalistic symphonic
poem cycle.
Study Example
The Moldau
(Symphonic Poem)
The Moldau uses a large orchestra in a very expressive
way. The textures ebb and flow like the river. The program starts with two small
streams, growing and accelerating and flowing down the countryside under the
moonlight, over rapids, past a castle, and then out of sight. Slurring and step-wise
motion help convey the water's actions.
Form is a free design (Fantasia) of alternating themes reflecting
the program (river). The recall of the main theme at the end provides a larger
scale sense of return. See analytical supplement in anthology.
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Modest Musorgsky (1839-1881;
1860)
Russian Nationalism
Night on Bald Mountain (1867)
(Russian Nationalism - Symphonic Poem)
Musorgsky belonged to the group known as the Russian five or the
"Mighty Handful." Their compositions define the Russian manifestation
of symphonic nationalism. Musorgsky symphonic poem Night on Bald Mountain
(1867) was originally intended to as music to Mengden's play The Witch.
It was later turned into a symphonic poem, and later used in the third act of
the opera Mlada (1872). At his death it was also found as part of the
unfinished opera Sorochintsi Fair (1875). The verbal description attached
to the score reads:
"subterranean sounds of unearthly voices. Appearance of
the spirits of Chernobog.
Chernobog's glorification and the Black Mass.
The Revels. At the height of the orgies is heard from afar the bell of a little
church,
which cause the spirits to disperse. Dawn."
Musorgsky's style is raw and primal. Many of his works were reorchestrated
by Rimsky-Korsakov after his death. Korsakov described his style as "so
talented, original, full of so much that was new and vital" but his technique
was clumsy, "absurd, disconnected harmony, ugly part-writing, sometimes
strikingly illogical modulation, sometimes a depressing lack of it, unsuccessful
scoring of the orchestral things..." He went on to explain his intervention,
"publication without some setting in order by a skilled hand would have
had no sense, except a biographical - historical one...what was needed at the
moment was an edition for performance, for practical artistic aims, for familiarization
with his enormous talent, not for the study of his personality and artistic
transgressions...an archaeological edition could be produced (at any time if
necessary)."
Musorgsky uses an extened sonata form complete with primary, secondary,
and closing theme groups. The development presents melodic fragments reiterated
at different (usually higher) pitch levels. The coda is sectional and the final
part, an intermezzo by Musorgsky, was added later by Rimsky-Korsakov. See analytical
supplement in anthology
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Claude Debussy (1862-1918; 1890)
French Impressionism
Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894)
(Symphonic Poem)
The work protray's a mythological figure, half-man, half-goat,
who is half asleep in the hot sun. His mind drifts to sexual fantasies and his
feelings are expressed through his playing of the panpipes. The notions of general
suggestion, per Liszt and Wagner, manifest in this work and in the nature of
impressionism in general. Debussy employs an ABA design that concludes with
a dream-like coda. See analytical supplement in anthology
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Richard Strauss (1864 -1949; 1911)
Strauss is a progressive figure in music history. He coined the
Tone Poem for orchestra, wrote operas, programmatic symphonies, and other
significant works. His mature style solidified by 1890 and changed little after
that date. His and Mahler's symphonies form the final important orchestral works
of the romantic period. His style remained consistent even though his output
continued well into the 20th century.
- His early symphonies are in traditional terms. His Symphony in F
(1884) is a four movement work (SF, Scherzo, SF, SF).
- His later symphonies have programmatic designs:
- Aus Italian (1886): depicts his travels in Italy.
- Domestic Symphony (1903): Quasi-symphonic poem - aligns movements
with specific family members.
- Alpine Symphony (1915): Quasi-symphonic poem - Written in 24
movements to correlate to the 24 hours in the day of a mountain and its
mountain climbers.
His Tone Poems are his most important symphonic contribution - that's
why well look at Don Quixote instead of his Domestic Symphony.
- Many of his tone poems are in sonata form: Macbeth (1880, rev. 1890),
Don Juan (1888), Death and Transfiguration (1899), and A
Hero's Life (1898). Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (1895) is
a variation/rondo form. Thus Spake Zarathustra (1896) is a sectional
form and Don Quixote (1896-7) is a variational form. His Tone Poem
continues the symphonic forms of Berlioz and Liszt and run the gamut of explicit
detail or oblique association.
- German roots: Brahms, Schumann and Beethoven were his early influences (counterpoint/variation
technique), later it was Wagner (melodic style and cyclic unity) and Liszt
(chromatic harmony - thematic transformation). His developmental skills are
noteworthy and form a unique style when combined with the late romantic element
of continuous melody. He and Brahms sum up the late romantic style; they both
have an intellectual and complex style - Brahms as the absolute and Strauss
as the expressive romantic. Bear the program in mind when listening to Strauss
- the entire design works to convey the extra musical concept.
- Complex textures: large orchestral forces, frequent counterpoint: imitation,
fugue, four part textures, and motivic strategies.
- Melody: This is his main attribute - long complex, but sectional, phrases
that yield motives for later development.
- Formal Schemes: Cyclic designs (leitmotiv) permeate his Tone Poems -
often on multiple levels. Wagner/Liszt chromaticism convey a high level of
expression. With composers like Struass, Liszt, Wagner, and Berlioz, the rhapsodic
style replaces more traditional formal designs. This style is often continuous
- periodicity of meter and cadential formulas are avoided.
- Rhythm: Syncopated melodic motives with a rhythmic identity (Beethoven).
Frequent tempo and meter changes. Strauss, like Beethoven, engineers motives
with a rhythmic identity.
- Harmony: Wagner/Liszt style augmented structures appear. Static regions
and parallel progressions are used (like Debussy). Functional harmony is ignored
as dominant sonorities fail to resolve. A hierarchy of dissonances occurs
with the lesser target dissonance becoming tonicized. Key relationships are
often distant and unrelated.
- Orchestral Technique: He demanded as much from his orchestra for his day
as Beethoven did from his. Virtuosity is demanded from every section. He adds
several instruments to achieve the required programmatic color: 3 flutes,
English horn, two bassoons, contrabassoon, divisi strings, three timpani,
cymbals, bass, and snare drum. His use of special effects points to
new symphonic trends and techniques: sul ponticello (as 4 note arpeggios
- like measured tremolo), harp and glock tremolo, various percussion instruments,
difficult solo passages for each section leader, up to 6 divisi parts in the
strings (four note pizz chords for basses!), brass single note tremolo, and
melodic doublings that eventually become cross sectional. His mature works
feature Wagneresque four part writing (counterpoint ctpt.) In the end,
these effects result from Strauss' efforts to depict or describe extramusical
content.
Study Examples
Don Quixote
- Theme and Variation form. Explicit connections between narrative aspects
and their representative musical motives. See the analytical supplement in
anthology for Don Juan to compare Struass' use of Sonata form with Musorgsky's.
Then compare both to Brahms and Tchaikovsky.
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Absolute Music
The concept of Absolute music materialized in the face of Programme
music. It was actually the 'default' state until an alternative state arose.
Neither extreme is actually possible: Programmatic music needs structure - in
the words of Wagner, "if there were no form, there would certainly be no
works of art"- and - Absolute music cannot be devoid of the human experience.
The aesthetic debate per the absolutists looks to elevate instrumental music
beyond the meaning of mere words (emphasis Hanslick) to arrive at a greater
consciousness only possible in instrumental terms. Narrative based forms, be
they instrumentally programmatic (Liszt or Berlioz), or vocally programmatic
(operas, cantatas, oratorio, hybrid forms, Lieder, etc.) are considered inferior
since the must rely on extramusical associations to be fully understood. Hanslick
reasons that this is why such narrative based forms appeal to the lower classes.
This Absolutist's view was perpetuated by poets such as Kant,
Nietzche, and F. Hand, and musicians including Hanslick, Ambros, Busoni, and
others. The squabbling did not decrease vocal output, and composers like Weber,
Schubert, and Strauss never regarded their vocal works as inferior. Writers
like E.T.A. Hoffman were torn between the two extremes. The polemics intensified
into serious quarrels. The question of whether music could express anything
more than the music itself even spurred Stravinsky into the debate. Wagner points
out that if music, as absolutists claim, can leap beyond words to express emotions
in the clearest possible manner, a manner more specific than words, then why
is its reception often a guessing game? Schumann said "music needs no program;"
it is always "self-evident and explicit"... "He (Roth) probably
thinks I get a hold of a screaming child and try to find the corresponding notes.
Its the other way round" (Blüme, 186-7). Wagner maintains that music
can only express universal emotions - not specific ones. The struggle revolves
around composers wishing to clearly communicate and performers/audiences wishing
to clearly perceive the composer's intentions. This clearly got out of hand
with the programs Wagner devised for selected Beethoven works, and with Kretschmar's
three volumes of concert guides. Wagner hailed Programme music as the "new
form" and decried that any association that music achieves with literature
or art would never dethrone it as the ultimate art form.
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897; 1865)
Liszt and Wagner developed a strong relationship. Wagner eventually
married his illegitimate daughter (Cosima Von Bulow). The so called "Tristan
chord (f-b-d#-g#)" might have originated with Liszt. At a much later
concert Wagner turned to Liszt and said "papa, they're playing our chord."
Liszt, along with Berlioz, greatly influenced Wagner. Liszt produced Lohengren
for him in 1850 in Weimar. In 1854 the first cycle of the Ring was completed.
Wagner's writings on music point to a new form - The Music Drama (Gesamtkunstwerke).
This new form demands that every single component: music, dance, drama, and
staging, be combined for maximum dramatic effect. No single element is more
important the others. Amid this Wagnerian extension of ideas that began with
Berlioz (Le Troyens) and Liszt, Brahms appears on the scene- the quintessential
absolutist - the same man who while leaving a party loudly announced, "If
there's anyone here I have not offended, I am truly sorry!"
Brahms deplored programmatic trends and yet achieved a very personal,
romantic expression through his music. Brahms quickly became the figurehead,
willing or not, for those in favor of absolute music. This places him in direct
opposition to Wagner. Brahm's symphonies reach the pinnacle of romantic, yet
absolute, expression. He presents the truest extension of Beethoven's classical
legacy, but in romantic terms. He style traits are:
- Dense counterpoint and figuration, even at times when it seems no counterpoint
is actually occurring. His extensive use of imitation, canon, contrary motion,
pedal point, antiphony, and fugue marks his point of separation from his contemporaries.
- Overlapping phrases and elided cadences give a constant sense of forward
momentum.
- Rich harmonic sonorities that avoid the 5th degree.
- Intricate rhythms. Also dense layers of rhythm, syncopation, duple against
triple, and like Beethoven, motives with a rhythmic identity. His shifting
of accents raises rhythmic accent to a structural level - melodically and
formally.
- His lyrical melodies can be motivic, folk-like, triadic (w/o 5th), or spun-out.
Frequent use of the sequence
- Mozartian style chromaticism - appoggiaturas, linear chromaticism, 1/2 step
motion (Mozart sym. No.40), etc.
- His harmonies, largely triadic, are more traditional than those of Wagner,
Liszt, or Berlioz.
- His tonal planes shift frequently but often remain around one pitch. Regions
may look major and minor simultaneously. Median modulations occur often. Plagal
cadences.
- Above all, his ability to motivically unify a work exceeds every other composer,
including Beethoven. His motivic germs can often be traced to the microscopic
level.
- His orchestrations shy away from effects. Standard 19th century techniques
abound: octave doubling melodies with a string preference; arpeggiation; the
antiphonal choir concept; parallel 3rds (trio/concertante style) permeate
the fabric and at times lend a three voice texture or support a theme from
underneath. Pizzicato is featured - it becomes a rhythmic device.
- With so much occurring, form becomes a critical element. His symphonies
are build on standard forms - except No.4's chaconne/passacaglia. Seven of
his symphonic movements are sonatas, 6 are rondos, and two are sonatinas.
This seems odd considering how his works sound like they are constantly unfolding
in a lyric manner. His lessening use of sonata form marks a trend of the period.
Symphony No.2 (1877) in D major.
- The character of the classical symphony is retrieved. Repeat signs accompany
the expositions. A lyrical second movement follows an fast, intricate first
movement. Developmental emphasis in three movements. Lyrical themes in all
four movements and tight motivic organization is every movement.
- Mvmt 1 - Unified by 3 motives. Triadic first theme - played by WWs.
Meter changes mark form. Parallel 3rds, arpeggiation, canon, and pizzicato
occur. The recap is shortened.
- Mvmt 2 - Stedman loves this adagio movement, and it is stunning. Aria
form. Brahms likes to begin movements with tonal ambiguity (diminished,
or no 3rds). Normal harmonies. Ternary theme design. Homophonic texture.
Rhythmic tension creates interest by shifting the melody offbeat by one
1/8 note. The second theme is in 12/8 (metric differentiation).
- Mvmt 3 - Scherzo with form derived by thematic, metric, and tempo contrasts
(p.146). Thematic similarities provide continuity. bitonal implications
arise as the melody implies E natural minor with the accompaniment is
in G.
- Mvmt 4 - Sonatina. Motive derived from mvmt I provides unity between
themes and across mvmts. The recap is shortened and has some new developmental
activity in place of the old. The coda ends with a bang as the brass are
featured to build the climatic ending.
Symphony No.3 (1883) in F major.
- The themes for all the movements are unified by the motto motive appearing
in the first two measures.
- Mvmt 1: Brahms plays with the two divisions of 6/4 in alternating fashion.
The theme motive recurs at multiple levels. Interesting plagal/tritone cadence
activity from B diminished 7th to F major in the coda.
- Mvmt 2: Aria form with sonata form aspects - development in middle with
rhythmic instability. Antiphonal chord statements mutate harmonically (mm.56-62).
2 against 3 accompaniment rhythm. Triple octave melody. Plagal final cadence.
- Mvmt 3: Waltz-like. Some parallel tenths and rhythmic displacement.
- Mvmt 4: Sonatina form finale with 4 section theme. The second half blends
development and recap. Countermelody against primary motive (from I) that
eventually ends the movement.
Symphony No.4 (1885) in e minor.
- Mvmt 1: A long lyrical 3 segment 1st theme. Homophonic - buts a tad contrapuntal.
Fanfare segues to second theme. The tune returns other new tunes for the closing.
The development starts with the first theme - a new counter motive soon takes
the spot light for contrapuntal activity. The fanfare reappears and preps
the recap. Subtle, quiet transitions begin the development and recap. Canonic
activity permeates the coda, Brahms strettos the entrances and a lyric motive
closes the mvmt.
- Mvmt 2: Brahms plays with various E tonalities (phrygian, minor, and major
- at end). Brahms traits appear: tonic pedal, pizz strings, melody in 6ths
and 3rds, and duple against triple. A sequence of 9th chords are a bit striking.
- Mvmt 3: Faster than his other IIIs and more like a scherzo. Developmental
regions involving the scherzo theme replace the trio section. Brahms applies
the thematic transformation principle by adjusting the lively triplet third
motive of the opening theme...to a lyric theme by radically adjusting its
rhythmic, dynamic, and phrase structure.
- Mvmt 4: The finale is the most interesting final movement of his oeuvre
- a theme and set of 8 measure variations, totally 33 including the coda,
all designed in the baroque chaconne-passacaglia style. The original style
is not suppose to break the harmonic progression - but Bach also in the d
minor chaconne by completely switching character and key during the latter
part of the work (modulates to Bb major - and the moment is striking - people
sometimes clap because they think the work is finished at the cadence prior
to the modulation).
Study Examples
Symphony No.1 (1876) in c minor.
- Overview: As an abstract symphonist rejecting programmatic trends, Brahms
presents an alternative style to that of Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner. Many
Beethovenesque traits appear in first symphony: dense counterpoint, lyrical
but motivically sectional themes, Mozartian chromaticism (melodic, linear,
and harmonic), and the use of classical and baroque forms (no. 4, IV); his
progressive contributions include - lyrical romantic melodies, occasional
WW theme introduction, intricate rhythm schemes (multiple meters, alternating
meters, 2 against 3, syncopation, and displaced accents), tonal ambiguity
(various keys of E), continuous phrasing (overlapping or elided), and plagal
relationships. In general, Short motives with phrase continuation marks the
theme.
- Mvmt 1 Un poco sostenuto, Allegro - Standard Sonata form with introduction.
Four motives from the intro form the Allegro themes. Tonic pedal under melody
against descending 3rds (countermelody) in the WWs. Violin tune is metrically
displaced. The development features thematic exploration. The intro returns
to setup the recap. The recap, as often happens, omits the developmental regions
that originally followed each theme's introduction. The intro returns in the
coda in miniature. (See notation on pp. 152-153 for motivic relationships
and regenerative treatments).
- Mvmt 2 Andante sostenuto - Aria form. Four short motives combine to form
a long lyrical melody. Most of the counterpoint happens in the final section
of the first A. The B presents a long ornate subordinate theme. The final
section further develops the A theme. The A2 and A3 segments close the tune.
- Mvmt 3 Un poco Allegretto e gracioso - Scherzo form. WW theme presentations
(recalls early traditions, but in the trio). The trio material returns in
the coda.
- Mvmt 4 Adagio; Piu Andante; Allegro non troppo, ma con brio - Like the first
movement, the finale themes derive from the introductory material. The intro,
like before, also returns amid the movement. The recap and development combine
(lightening the character of the finale is long standing legacy from the past)
but the material is varied motivically and orchestrally. An augmented 6th
chord prepares the final closing formula. He juxtaposes a plagal harmonic
cadence with a melodic leading tone cadence (contrapuntal).
- Orchestral textures are not functional in the manner of Berlioz or Liszt.
They act more developmental per Beethoven. Brahms generally keeps the three
choirs separate but does voice some melodic lines across sections. (The term
cross sectional voicing is often associated with Duke Ellington - who
would also combine instruments from different sections for melodic presentation.)
Fugal writing does subside over the period (Stedman's manner of including this
discussion of fugue usage or lack there of, reads awkwardly - like he forgot
to say this somewhere else - or like he's apologizing for Brahm's infrequency
of fugal writing). Brahms does focus on contrary motion, juxtaposing themes
in homophony context. Lyric melody does require this. But, Berlioz and Liszt
both use fugal writing in their works (S.F. and Faust) though like Beethoven,
it forms a small amount of the overall output.
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893; 1866)
Tchaikovsky worte 6 symphonies. His style is deeply rooted in
the European tradition unlike his compatriots, the Russian five or the "Mighty
Handful" (Musorgsky's symphonic poem Night on Bald Mountain (1867),
etc.). Though he wrote in the European tradition he was extremely nationalistic.
He included many Russian elements in his works, namely, dance rhythms and folk
melodies. Like other great romanticists, he is a superb lyric melodist and a
masterful orchestrator. His melodies take several forms: 1) folk, 2) military
march style, 3) waltz-like, and 4) lyrical. Some melodies combines several traits
at once. He favors appoggiaturas much more than linear chromaticism - which
does occur occasionally. His phrase structures are sound and often overlap.
He extends material through repetition and sequence, instead of immediately
developing it like Brahms. His developments suffer though he had an adept sense
of counterpoint, not in parallel to Brahms (but who is?), but in the normal
romantic sense of combining melodies, using counter melodies, and so forth,
like Brahms, Schumann, Berlioz, and Liszt. There is little imitation except
for the 5th symphony's fugato (dev. of mvmt. I). He does use canonic and antiphonal
activity. He does employ cyclic devices at times, especially the motto motive
in Nos. 4 and 5. He borrows Berlioz's idée fix idea for long programmatic
symphony, with extended program, based on Bryon's poem Manfred. His symphonic
form is traditional in order and character of movement. Tonal and harmonic schemes
are more conservative than Brahms, Liszt, Strauss, and Mahler. His most significant
facet, along with melody and rhythm, is orchestration. He maintains several
practices:
- Separate choirs - very little cross sectional voicing.
- Pervasive octave doublings in the strings and sometimes WWs. The doubling
facet evolves slowly - remember how little it occurs in Mozart, Haydn,
and Beethoven? Schubert is really the first to become regularly associated
with it.
- Keeping the rhythmic effects in the WWs. If you think about it, this
is a natural concept when considering instrumental attack time and number
of players.
- Scales are used in background parts for filler.
- Pizzicato strings. This plays into his Russian folk-like sense of rhythm.
Brahms used it a fair amount also.
- Focusing on low register WWs in a bit innovative and becomes a Tchaikovsky
trademark. Berlioz incorporated some low WWs.
- Equality among sections - but the low brass still isn't as equal yet
- Wagner loves them - remember the Wagnerian Tuba!
- His typical orchestration includes piccolo, WWs in pairs, the 7 brass
set up (4+2+3), tuba, 3 timpani, BASS DRUM, cymbal, and strings.
Tchaikovsky poses a mix of programmatic (mostly smaller forms:
tone poems, overtures, etc. with subtitles) and abstract works. He is mainly
revered for his orchestral scoring and melodic design. He extends the style
of Schubert. His march-like first themes and lyrical second themes, dance style
scherzo-waltzes, folk themes, and use of rhythm as a unifying device all more
than substitute for his lack of focus on developmental counterpoint/motivic
designs. Though his style was European based, many Russian elements pepper his
works.
Symphony No.1
- Mvmt 1:
- Programmatic intent as first two movements have subtitles.
- Melodies from I and IV derive from folk themes.
- Development per sequence of main theme.
- Rhythms help continuity and transition (a bit of Brahms).
- Mvmt 2:
- Subdued character.
- Countermelody
- Pizz.
- Mvmt 3:
- Tchaikovsky's scherzo points the future of scherzo in a dance direction
- per Mendelssohn and like its Minuet past.
- Trio is a waltz.
- Median final cadence of VI to i.
- Mvmt 4:
- Sets the Russian Festive Finale tradition (per Glinka).
- Finale derives second theme from trio.
Symphony No.2 (Little Russian moniker from use of Ukrainian (called
little Russia) folk tunes).
- Mvmt 1:
- Again, several melodies from I and IV derive from folk themes.
- Development per sequence of main theme.
- Rhythms help continuity and transition (a bit of Brahms).
- Mvmt 2:
- Borrows theme from his destroyed opera.
- Mvmt 3:
- Scherzo is in 3/8 and trio is in 2/8.
- Mvmt 4:
- Another Russian Festive Finale tradition (per Glinka).
Symphony No.3
- Mvmt 1:
- Slow funeral march intro.
- Theme from intro becomes allegro theme.
- Development unusually complex for Tchaikovsky - motivic development
and counterpoint.
- Rhythms help continuity and transition (a bit of Brahms).
- Mvmt 2:
- Mvmt 3:
- scherzo in a dance direction - per Mendelssohn in WW scoring.
- Trio pedals D under several keys.
- Mvmt 4:
Symphony No.5
- Mvmt 1:
- Motto theme unifies entire symphony (esp. I and IV - beginnings, ending
of II) - unusual for him.
- March style theme in Allegro.
- Rhythmic displacement of subordinate theme recalls Brahms.
- Development unusually complex for Tchaikovsky - motivic development
and counterpoint.
- Rhythms help continuity and transition (a bit of Brahms).
- Mvmt 2:
- Best showing of countermelodies in his output.
- Mvmt 3:
- Acts like two scherzos (Scherzo and Trio).
- Mvmt 4:
- Another Russian Festive Finale - march style rhythms, etc...
- Motto theme is everywhere - closing section, recap and coda.
- Mvmt I main theme ends the work.
Symphony No.6 (Pathetique)
- Mvmt 1:
- Intro theme permeates intro and forms allegro theme.
- Development is fugal (main tune).
- New theme in coda.
- Mvmt 2:
- Mvmt 3:
- Mvmt 4:
- Lends the works the name Pathetique due its slow sombre mood.
- The break from the festival finale, and the normal character of last
movements in general is important - especially when looking for points
that anticipate the demise of symphonic form.
Study Examples
Symphony No.4 (1877)
- Overview: His contrasting tone colors (orchestration) over repeated material
mark his style of development (extension) that rarely includes counterpoint.
His abundance of tunes, scales, repetition, sequence, color, numerous sections,
folk themes, variation, Russian festival finales, waltz, and overlapping expressive
climaxes form a uniquely romantic style.
- Mvmt 1 Andante sostenuto, Moderato con anima (In movimento di Valse)
- Self titles "Fate" motto theme permeates the extended intro
and forms the basis for the main theme which focuses on the sixth scale
degree (Db) and is comprised of 4 groups of 1/8th notes (2,2,2,3). The
emotional climax incorporates chromatic lines as counter melodies (mm.
70-72 and 74-76). A short transition works to quietly introduce the lyrical
second theme. A waltz forms the closing section in simple trio sonata
style (3rds, w/bass). A new theme appears at the close of the exposition
based on the tonic triad (). The motto theme segues
to the development (cyclical). The development features the main theme,
motto theme, and a new theme (D) posed in sequential climaxes. The recap
appears at the climax ( m.284). The recap is truncated
(trans. material omitted). The motto theme signals the coda (m.335). A
new theme (E) is introduced and diminuted as the movement heads accelerating
towards the conclusion. The opening appoggiatura returns per the opening
retrieving the Db from the beginning (compare mm. 23 and 412, see motto
theme on bottom of p. 165). The diagram on p. 166 shows how often the
motto recurs in the cyclic design of this movement. Tchaikovsky weaves
several moods and layered climaxes together forming an unending wave of
romantic expression.
- Mvmt 2 Andantino in modo di canzona
- A folk style melody in song form.
- Theme's latter half is sequenced for climax.
- Main theme's return is varied; now has countermelodies.
- March section forms the middle area.
- Recap returns first section.
- Coda/development leads to soft ending.
- Mvmt 3 Scherzo (Pizzacato ostinato), Allegro
- Pervasive pizz style 1/8th note texture. WWs and Brass form the middle
section. The pizz section returns and the closing material features antiphonal
activity (median tonalities) between choirs of the pizz motive.
- Mvmt 4 Allegro con fuoco
- This is a sectional form. Exposition with 3 theme design (A1,A2,B).
A2 derives from Russian folk melody. The folk melody is set, after a cadence,
in a series of strophic variations for the second section. The final section
recalls the 1st movements motto theme (cyclic unity) and moves to a coda
treating the folk theme (second section). This work, in the Russian Festival
finale style, is one of Tchaikovsky's most important developmental
structures. It divides into two larger sections (I and II), both with
exposition and development sections, and the coda serves up recap material.
- This work's main appeal is its orchestration and tuneful melodies. Tchaikovsky
uses successive orchestral groupings for successive phrases. He forms a developmental
practice (contrast/extension) based on orchestral scoring (scoring raised
to a developmental strategy). The concertato (alternating choirs) strategy
becomes one of his principal devices for presenting sequenced material and
sustaining the listener's interest.
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Anton Bruckner (1824-1896; 1866)
- Most important sacred composer of the late 19th century.
- His pious, simple, humble nature appears in his works.
- One can reason that his interest in church music, being a church organist,
naturally connects to contrapuntal skills (as with Bach). His works have a
strong contrapuntal persona.
- Wagner, among others, had a profound influence on Bruckner. This is seen
in the length of the movements, larger orchestra, powerful brass scoring -
especially in the codas.
- His style remained consistent over his 30 years of work with 11 symphonies.
His consistency lead to comments that he wrote one symphony 9 times, but the
same was said about Vivaldi who supposedly wrote one concerto 400 times. Both
are oversimplifications. His common traits are:
- Intros with tremolo in the strings.
- A theme emerges over the tremolo which continues to build.
- Main theme is tonic triad based and may take many measures to unfold.
- Depilates followed by triplets often appear.
- Climaxes often involve progressive rhythmic diminution of an idea.
- Full, loud unison themes with breaths between phrases
- His second theme is often comprised of two themes that are spun further
by polyphonic activity (Gesangsperiode)
- A chorale like theme (church influence) often appears as the third theme
(closing).
- Very long transitions at times. Consider the difference between expanding
a work by extending themes versus extending transitions.
- Slow movements are often 5 part form ABABA with returning material varied
or developmental: (ABA'B'A'') Continuous development.
- Scherzos approximate sonata form as both trio and scherzo have developmental
second halves. Trios are dance like and resemble a Ländler.
- His finales are lighter than his first mvmts - a traditional concept
- and mainly use sonata form.
- The codas are spectacles featuring the main theme of the symphony. A
multimeasure continuation of the tonic chord often ends the work.
- He combines romantic and classic traits. Wagnerian length of the movements,
larger orchestra, powerful brass scoring - especially in the codas. And,
Beethoven/Brahmsesque use of counterpoint and motivic/cyclic unity.
- His more progressive traits include: free dissonance, disjunct melodies,
freely modulating themes, and abrupt chromatic progressions.
- His orchestral scoring is rather bland. He expands the numbers with
triple WWs, 8 horns (4 Wagnerian tubas), triple brass, bass tuba, timpani,
harp, and strings. Choirs are scored separately but not as often as
Tchaikovsky. He emphasizes the brass, string tremolo, and octave doublings.
The codas usually feature the brass. Brass often introduce themes or themes
will be presented by full orchestra (tutti).
- He often revised his works which causes problems since several works
were revised after his death.
- Symphony in F minor (discarded)
- Student work with Wagnerian sonorities and dissonances. Elements of
Schubert appear in III (folk melody and light design)
- Symphony No.0 in D minor (1864; rev. 1869)
- Intro tremolo. Length through repetition. Wagnerian style in II. Scherzo
has unison theme. Military style finale like the F minor Symphony.
- Symphony No.1 in C major
- Intro tremolo (vague). Second theme is the Gesangsperiode design.
Wagnerian style II. Mvmt III uses Gesangsperiode design. Military
style brass focused finale. Bruckner chromaticism.
- Symphony No.2 in C minor
- Intro as usual. His famous motto rhythm figure appears in this symphony
at m.20 (see p.171). Unusual chord progressions. Initial theme returns
in finale. Quotes from his own F minor mass segue to the coda.
- Symphony No.3 in D minor
- Version problems. The original score quotes several of Wagner's works
- later revised out. Brass emphasis per Wagner, but Bruckner's personal
style is now full manifest.
- Symphony No.5 in Bb major
- Intro with Urthema (primordial triadic theme). Typical Bruckner traits.
Pares back II's transitions to achieve a much better design. Better balance
between tonal stability and instability. Scherzo is a sonata with a Ländler
second theme (Ländler) was used in prior trios. Themes
from I and II segue to a four section finale. Sections 1, 3, and 4 focus
on fugal activity while II presents the lyrical Gesangsperiode
for contrast.
- Symphony No.6 in A major
- Shortest work but typical design.
- Symphony No.7 in Eb major
- More moderate and Wagnerian. A long principle theme as opposed to the
Urthema - it is more typical of romantic style: melodic dissonances
and sequential treatment per Wagner and Schubertesque closing theme. Mvmt
II is very brass heavy. Developmental scherzo and trio. Finale has military
style but chorale tune second theme. Recap and dev. are combined. Coda
retrieves first theme. He piles on the brass in tutti passages like Strauss,
especially at endings.
- Symphony No.8 in C minor
- Heavy brass 1st mvmt theme. Second mvmt scherzo. Adagio is 3rd movement.
Expanded brass and timpani deliver finale themes. The coda retrieves and
combines all earlier themes.
- Symphony No.9 in D minor
- Uncompleted and left as sketches. Much more development than some earlier
works.
Study Examples
Symphony No.4 (1873; rev. 1889)
- Overview: Revised several times (5). Bruckner is one of the last abstract
(absolute) 19th century symphonists. He, like Brahms, extends the style of
Beethoven. The parallels seen in his fourth symphony include: extended length
and continuous development (all 4 mvmts). His romantic lyricism balances
the counterpoint. The sonority is brass focused. The finale recalls the first
mvmt theme (his later works recall many themes in the finale).
- Mvmt 1 Ruhig Bewegt:
- Vague string tremolo.
- Urthema presented by horn.
- Crab style (retrograde counterpoint) for A2 (see p.178) with Bruckner
duplet / triplet polyrhythmic design.
- Typical Gesangsperiode second theme.
- Small development.
- Retrieves secondary themes for closing material.
- Mvmt 2 Andante:
- Most are 5 part forms that combine developmental and non-developmental
forms. This one is one of the two true sonata forms. (Points to the expansionist
trend to turn forms without developments into ones with developments).
Primary and secondary themes with extended development. Recap covers the
exposition and coda retrieves first tune.
- Mvmt 3 Bewegt (Scherzo)
- Like movement II, extends non-developmental works with added developments
- per Beethoven, and earlier in the minuets with Haydn and Mozart. Bruckner
adds development to approximate sonata form. The returning material is
varied pointing to continuous development. The folk like trio resembles
earlier (Schubert) styles.
- Mvmt 4 Bewegt, doch nicht zu schnell
- Recalls first movement for opening material. Tremolo and Urthema (WWs).
Tutti primary theme with polyrhythm (2/3). Mvmt I's main tune appears in
the exposition (cyclic) and development - which divides into several parts,
each devoted to previous thematic ideas.
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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904; 1873)
- His career, like the music of the time, vacillated between absolute and
programmatic styles
- His orchestral output includes 9 symphonies and 5 symphonic poems.
- Dvorak's style hails from several sources:
- Brahms and Beethoven: the German flare for counterpoint, motivic unity,
and developmental procedures.
- Wagner: Melodic design, the notorious Rienze turn, and thematic/cyclical
concepts.
- Schubert: Lyric melody and some minor folk influence.
- Dvorak: Folk idioms and Nationalism.
- In general, Dvorak is remembered for his dance-like, folk based themes.
Wagner's influence appeared in his early works. The effect of Beethoven
and Brahms never left but diminished over his career. Schubertian lyricism
remained consistent.
- Symphony No. 1
- Very much under the influence of Beethoven in static harmonic rhythm
and motivic design. The second theme is lyrical per Schubert. The second
movement is Wagnerian with melodic turn and upward leaps, but the fugal
section recalls Beethoven. Dvorak's folk style
- Symphony No. 2
- Similar to Symphony no.1 with more Wagnerian traits in the finale. The
second movement has a fugato section.
- Symphony No. 3
- Often called his "Eroica." It is the most Wagnerian of all
his symphonies (the melodic turn becomes a unifier), but with a Brahmsian
second mvmt and a more idiomatically Dvorak finale. The second mvmt Funeral
March's use of C# minor and Db major recalls Schubert.
- .Symphony No. 4
- Less Wagnerian (harmony and melody), folk traits begin to take over
in the scherzo. Brahms style scoring appears in the syncopated accompaniments
and arpeggiated pizz sections. The trio is in 2/4 (remember Schumann?).
- Symphony No. 5
- His first symphony in the mature style - more folk elements.
- Symphony No. 6 (The German Symphony)
- Reverts back to Brahms, especially in mvmts. I and IV. Mvmt I features
imitative writing, metric contraction, pedal point, contrary motion w/pedal,
and 3rds in contrary motion. The second and third movements are Beethovenesque.
- Symphony No. 7
- Again in the manner of Brahms with Dvorak coming through in the 3rd
and 4th mvmts.
- Symphony No. 8
- Is a very original work that displays German elements in the first mvmt.
and a Schubertian second mvmt. The scherzo is waltz like and modal. The
trio features 3 against 2 (Brahms). The finale is a variation form.
- Symphony No. 9 (The New World)
- Is his most unique and personal statement - very tuneful and folk oriented.
The intro and allegro are linked thematically. Second theme is modal.
The second mvmt is a rare English Horn feature. Scores cellos above basses
for part of the folk like trio. All prior movement themes recur in the
finale.
- General Style traits
- Folk elements: rhythms, modality, and tunefulness.
- His use of counterpoint, imitation, and fugato is limited - but occur
much more than with Tchaikovsky. Counterpoint and folk melody have mutually
exclusive elements. Countermelodies seem to be his main contrapuntal device.
Motivic development per imitation and sequence also appear.
- Harmonic language is a bit conservative except for a few Wagnerian passages
(third related chord progressions, augmented triads, and deceptive cadences).
- His personal style features a key change at phrase breaks (i.e.major
tonic to major submediant), modal scales, and floating modality over one
pitch.
- Lyric melodies recall Schubert, while rhythmic motivic ones retrieve
Beethoven and Brahms. Those per Wagner feature chromaticism and the Rienze
turn.
- Orchestration is his hallmark. Choir separation and cross section doublings
(octave also) often emphasis melodic lines. WWs and Brass are often featured.
Trombones or trumpets introduces some themes. Colorful orchestration diminishes
in the German style works where the Brahmsian use of arpeggiation and
pizz often occur. The folk idioms often become a WW feature. His scoring
forces are are standard for the time: WWs in pairs, four horns, three
trumpets, three trombones, with tuba in symphony nos.6 and 8, timpani,
and strings. His style evolved from Beethoven and Schubert, then Brahms
and Wagner, to include folk elements in the middle symphonies, and finally
an all inclusive, but primarily folk style for his mature works.
- Form: About half of his symphonies are primarily in the German style
(1, 2, 3, 6, and 7) and the rest are folk (4, 5, 8, and 9). Dvorak worked
out themes in developmental forms as opposed to Tchaikovsky - about 50%
of Dvorak's forms are developmental. His slow movements in ternary form
have B sections that also display developmental procedures - as well as
his 8 scherzos. He rarely develops material when its presented, he instead
spins out longer ideas and saves the motivic treatment for the development.
He usually has two basic theme groups in sonata forms. The slow movements
are lyrical. Some scherzos are dance-like and thus more waltz or folk
derived - three are in duple meter. The scherzos are usually three part
rondos without repeat marks. The traditional romantic design continues
in his dance like finales - often sonata form.
- Conclusion: his folk based lyricism is his primary trait - but he also
uses motivic devices per the German tradition. Thus, his final style is
a mix of the two which varies in amount from work to work. Tchaikovsky
was more expressive, more orchestrally colorful, and less contrapuntal.
Study Examples
Symphony No.7 (1885)
- Overview: This work best shows Dvorak's synthesis of German and folk idioms.
This symphony shows his best use of contrapuntal devices - a trait not often
featured in his others. His originality shines through in the third movement
(scherzo). He was able to successfully combine his folk heritage with his
more learned style per Beethoven, Schubert, and Brahms - with a dash or two
of Wagner's chromaticism, harmonic style, and melodic flare. This work best
represents the synthesis of all the late romantic trends. Notice the very
traditional design and character of movements.
- Mvmt 1 Allegro maestoso
- Modal opening theme. Motivic extraction (German) extends the phrase
with pitch and rhythmic manipulation supported by chains of diminished
7th chords. A five section first theme with a climatic appoggiatura.
- The second section of the theme (A2) shows metric contraction and rhythmic
displacement per Brahms. The third section juxtaposes the motivic extraction
and a new idea (A3). A transitional passage featuring contrapuntal development
(a la Brahms) moves towards the A4 idea which forms the most intense area
of contrapuntal activity (imitative lines and contrary motion against
moving 3rds over a pedal bass. Dvorak releases the tension with A5 which
features a tune traded between the horn and oboe. Extracted motives provide
a segue to the second theme area.
- The second theme is simpler and more lyrical (we see the traditional
rhythmic 1st theme and lyrical second theme design). It spins out in a
continuous manner by eliding cadences and prolonging the dominant. Brahms
style accompaniments (weak beat and pizz focus) provide support.
- The harmonic design is fairly standard (closing area in V). A textural
thinning preps the development.
- The development divides loosely into 6 sections that retrieve earlier
motives form both theme areas.
- He shortens the recap by eliminating several sections.
- The coda is developmental and also introduces C# melodically. Its absence
harmonically has kept the minor vibe of the movement intact. The C# is
not used harmonically and is avoided in the final measures - thus maestoso...
- Mvmt 2 Poco Adagio
- WWs introduce his very lyrical theme. The second statement of it is
supported by Brahmsian scoring (arp. and pizz). The second theme is presented
by the horns a 4. This slow movement, like many of his others, uses the
middle section (C) for developmental contrast. An abbreviated recap closes
the work. The overall design is quite continuous.
- Mvmt 3 Vivace (Scherzo)
- The third movements really show Dvorak's personal flare for folk and
dance idioms. A strong rhythmically focused (organized) dance tune and
a lyrical countermelody form a unit that is repeated about four times.
The trio has the same melodic design. The overall form is like an ABA
with a coda.
- Mvmt 4 Allegro
- A slow first theme deviates from tradition (Schubert?). It spins out
developmentally for nearly 100 measures. The second theme presents a bit
of role reversal with its folk design and um-pah accompaniment.
- The development marks one of his most elaborate contrapuntal treatments
that focuses on imitation and theme with countermelody (see page 193).
- Another abbreviated recap closes the work in tonic major (darkness to
light).
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Chapter 5
French Orchestral Music of the Nineteenth Century
French composers wrote few symphonies during the romantic era. The symphony
had an aristocratic attachment that the French, just fresh from the revolution,
wished to avoid. The connection was so strong that it was even banned for a
brief period of time just after the war. Military music was the rage in France
per the concert band. This influence spread to America through New Orleans.
Furthermore, opera was the main musical form in France, especially French Grand
Opera like Berlioz's Le Troyens. Though a few French composers wrote
symphonies prior to 1850, it was the ones after that date, namely Bizet, Gounod,
Saint-Saens, and Franck that are the most interesting - even though their combined
output only totals 7 symphonies. Franck's Symphony in d minor, Berlioz's Symphonie
Fantastique, and Saint-Seans' Symphony No. 3 form the main contributions
to modern concert programs. The 58 year gap between the Symphonie Fantastique
and Franck's Symphony in d minor shows either France's distaste for the form
or the popularity of French opera.
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Cesar Franck (1822 -1890; 1856)
- Like Bruckner, Franck is an important sacred composer of the late 19th century.
His orchestral output includes three symphonic poems and one symphony. His
organ works form an important contribution to the instrument and point to
the composer who influenced him the most - J.S. Bach. His style is partly
based in the classical-romantic tradition per Mozart and Schubert. His symphonic
poems form his best attempt to work in a more contemporary style.
- Forms: Generally conservative, functional, and clearly defined. He does
not write in the ultra expressive manner of Berlioz, Liszt, or Wagner, though
he does incorporate cyclic ideas and theme transformation (his main progressive
formal trait). His developments recall Schubert's style - melodic ideas spun
through striking tonal regions - but do not work by orchestral contrast and
repetition (like Tchaikovsky). He mainly uses sonata form or sectional forms.
- Melody: Phrases are short, regular, and periodic. He bases his melodies
around a single pitch that serves as a point of return and departure. Appoggiaturas,
Half-steps, diminished thirds, and diminished fourths occur.
- Rhythm: Regular and predictable with the exception of weak beat accents
(like Brahms) both melodically and harmonically.
- Harmony: Points to his area of differentiation. His unique harmonies are
often generated linearly (counterpoint) as opposed to being the result of
some contrived progression. Some progressions have consecutive 7th or 9th
chords.
Study Examples
Symphony No.1 (his only symphony - 1888)
- Overview: A cyclical three movement form. His 'phrase-motive' concept springs
from Classical periodic phrase structure. He uses the cyclic phrase concept
(Berlioz, Liszt, etc.) instead of motivic reiteration (Beethoven/Brahms).
His unification strategy recalls longer phrases and melodies in lieu of short
motives. The primary theme of the first movement returns in the third. The
development is Schubertian (tonal contrast) - repeated passages moving through
striking tonalities. Very little counterpoint appears in this symphony - just
a few canonic areas and regions where tunes are juxtaposed. The textures are
classical and often not as dense as Beethoven's.
- Mvmt 1 Lento, Allegro - The French overture concept returns. The allegro
is an expanded sonata form. The uneven phrasing at the beginning is not typical
of Franck. The theme is comprised of several short 2 measure motives. He recalls
motives as transitional material. The offbeat rhythm of the theme (Brahmsian)
along with its one note focus marks his main traits. A textural thinning precedes
the development which treats the closing theme (C1). Several theme motives
(the phrase motive concept) are reworked and combined and a new theme appears
in canon in ms. 221. Main theme ideas follow along with more new material.
A textural thinning prepares the recap (ms.331). The recap is shortened by
omitting thematic and repetitive material. The coda further develops the theme
- and retrieves the development's canonic activity.
- Mvmt 2 Allegretto - A sectional form defined by orchestral scoring. The
scoring identity of each section leans towards a rondo, but the developmental
activity works to obscure it. The first theme presents the classic design
of a rhythmic idea followed by a lyric idea - except here the rhythmic idea
becomes the accompaniment to the stronger lyrical idea (A2). The English horn
presents the lyric theme (predates Dvorak's New World similar usage). The
second tune is a single note derived idea.
- Mvmt 3 Allegro non troppo - Cyclic ideas unite the movement, and the overall
work, as melodies from both prior movements reappear continually: the English
horn melody from II appears in all three sections and two first movement phrase
motives appear in the recap. It is a highly original sonata design. The exposition
states each theme group. Each group is immediately repeated and extended (phrase
repetition). The development treats the themes by moving them through tonal
regions - a bit of counterpoint ends that section. The recap omits the entire
subordinate theme area in lieu of themes from earlier movements (cyclical).
A plagal cadence ends the movement and some earlier phrases.
- His scoring adds to the forces used by Brahms and Tchaikovsky. Brahms' orchestra
was basically the same size as Beethoven's. Franck adds English horn, bass
clarinet, two cornets, and harp. He does use textural contrast for dramatic
effect. His conservative traits include: choir separation, octave doublings
on melodies (strings mainly), measured tremolo, and pizz accompaniments.
Chapter 5
Gustav Mahler
(1860-1911; 1885)
Strauss' and Mahler's works mark the end of romantic symphonic music. They
were long time friends and colleagues yet their output had some fundamental
differences and similarities. Struass summarizes programmatic trends while Mahler
worked, overall, to extend the Viennese symphonic tradition per Beethoven, Schubert,
and Brahms. Both were expansionists. Strauss because of his programs, and Mahler
because of the Beethoven/Brahms tradition. Mahler even reverted to classicism
in his middle period. His style vacillated between programmatic, folk, classical,
and romantic. In many ways Mahler's use of enormous orchestral forces to, at
times, present simple folk themes denotes his vacillation between style and
content. His output divides into four periods:
- 1888-1990 Folk Period. This period contains his four early symphonies. Each,
except for the first, use voice in at least one movement. He used sectional
forms with programmatic designs.
- 1900-1905 Neoclassical Period. The folk idioms dissipate as he focuses on
absolute forms. His works grow expansive through the forces are somewhat reduced.
No vocal movements occur in these symphonies (no. 5-7).
- 1907-1909 Eclectic Period. This period has works from prior styles and includes
symphonies nos. 8 - 10.
His influences include the folk song tradition, like Schubert. He often reverts
to the Landler form for the scherzo, as did Bruckner. His folk song interests
point to his inclusion of the voice. His Song of the Earth was actually a song
cycle converted to symphonic proportions. His early symphonies point to the
programmatic and musical influences of Liszt, Berlioz, and Wagner. Extremely
detailed programs accompany these works. His disenchantment with programmaticism
coincides with popular trends of the time. His overall style, all periods together,
reflect an emphasis on development, counterpoint, and motivic/cyclic unity -
including cyclical themes.
He expands the normal movements of the symphony and also adds extra movements.
Three of his nine completed symphonies had five movements, and one had six.
His expanded orchestra, almost as if he and Strauss were competing, can be seen
on pages 224-225. Only three works had as few as four horns, all the rest had
expanded brass (6-10 hrns.). Four or five oboes are common. Symphony No.5 has
5 piccolos. Numerous auxiliary percussion are needed, along with mandolin (folk
element) in symphonies nos. 7 and 8.
His textures began as typical 19th century homophony designs but evolved into
increasingly complex contrapuntal structures. Fugal sections appear in the most
all of the later symphonies (no. 4 forward). The counterpoint, thus linear style
of his and Strauss' works foreshadow the linear/contrapuntal approaches (non-homophonic)
to follow in the 20th century. His melodies strike a balance between Viennese
and folk designs. Viennese designs per Schubert and Brahms and folk idioms from
German, Hungarian, and Slavonic cultures. The folk elements include nature motives
(remember Beethoven's Pastoral bird calls?). His marches have military significance
and the Viennese melodies often feature chromaticism (Mozart, et al.). The descending
fourth seems to appear frequently.
The harmonic designs become perplexing because of the counterpoint -
linear writing reduces vertical possibilities. The primordial triad appears.
Diatonic and chromatic progressions are less frequent than with Strauss or Brahms.
Earlier works are more predictable and some later works do have large areas
with traditional progressions. Like Brahms, there are several plagal cadences.
His areas of release often feature the tonic triad. Cadences can be linear step-wise
progressions. These elements begin to anticipate the collapse of functional
harmony.
Symphonic Compositions:
His first symphony (Titan 1888) had a program that Mahler later retracted
(Remember Schumann?). He later rewrote another program but had removed it by
1900. It is comprised of five moments forming two large parts and includes some
of his own songs (Lieder) as themes. He later replaced the second movement with
a scherzo and trio. He uses folk tunes throughout the movements and often in
a humorous fashion. The third movement, based on a minor version of Frére
Jacque was controversial until recent times. Large orchestra: seven horns,
4 each of flutes, ob., clr., and tpt.
The second symphony first movement is adapted from an earlier funeral march.
An elaborate, quasi-autobiographical program accompanies the work. A Landler
forms the second and third movements. The latter's rhythm has pervasive, almost
galant style rush of 1/16th notes - it derives from Mahler's song Des Antonius
von Padua Fischpredight. The fourth movement is his infamous Urlicht
(primeval light) for alto soloist and orchestra. The text is from a group of
German poems collected from 1537-1809 called Des Knaben Wunderhorn -
a work that had a profound influence on Mahler poetically and programmatically.
The finale employs huge forces including vocal soloists and choir, and instruments
off stage for effect.
Mahler's Hymn to Nature is his third symphony and presents a very detailed
program that experienced 8 different revisions. The final version extracts the
seventh movement which became the fourth movement of symphony no.4. The first
movement is the longest movement by Mahler and has a double exposition and march
style development. The second movement minuet has a series of contrasting meters.
A scherzo follows and the fourth movement is another alto solo using one of
his Leider melodies. The finale, an Adagio, features features women's choir,
alto solo, and children's choir.
His fourth symphony pulls back the size of the orchestra and length of developmental
forms. The first movement's bird calls are followed by another Landler-esque
scherzo-trio second movement. A variation form with two themes forms the third
movement - his variation style works from each successive variation rather than
the from the main theme. The finale features solo soprano with orchestra - remember
it was originally the finale of symphony no.3.
His next three symphonies mark a change of style back to neoclassicism per
Beethoven, Brahms, and Schubert. With No.5 his forms are traditional yet his
orchestration is like Strauss'. The first movement is very Beethovenesque complete
with exposition repeats, motivic development, and extended coda. An Andante
follows (though a scherzo was originally written as mvmt 2) with chromatic expression
that blurs modality. The scherzo's theme comes from the first movement (cyclical)
and is in traditional 5 part form S-T-S-T-S-coda. The trio alternates meters
(Brahms). The finale recalls themes from the prior movements. This symphony
best presents his polyphonic prowess. His orchestration includes a hammer that
marks the strikes of fate at three pinnacle points int he finale. A program
describes his intentions.
The seventh and eighth symphonies borrowed ideas, textures, and orchestrations
from prior works - a point which caused some ridicule by later scholars. His
use of progressive tonality begins to manifest (beginning in one key and ending
in another - often minor to major a.k.a. "darkness to light" as in
Beethoven or even Bach). His progressive style returns with linear generation
and open 5ths. Other verticalities recall Wagner. Mandolin and guitar occur
in the fourth movement. Symphony no.8 is more programmatic with a finale based
on Goethe's Faust. The large forces include boys choir, mixed choir,
vocal soloists, and a huge orchestra. This works expands on Beethoven's 9th
symphony in many ways - including extensive counterpoint. The ninth symphony
reorders the character of the movements: Andante (I), Landler (II), Allegro
assai (III), and Adagio (IV). Some themes come from prior works and the style
has a classical edge to it - especially the smaller forces that resemble a Beethoven
score. Some Wagnerian turns appear in the first movement.
Study Examples
Symphony No.5 (1902)
- Overview: This symphony, though not representative of his programmatic side,
presents the perfect example of his importance in the history of symphonic
composition. His works mark the culmination of 19th century romantic symphony
per Beethoven, Haydn, Brahms, Schubert, etc. just as Strauss did so with the
expressive programmatic trends per Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner (his chromaticism,
melodic turn, polyphonic designs, and cyclical unity). Remember our discussion
of Wagner's style that placed voice and orchestra on such equal footing that
the voice became another line in a thick polyphonic texture. The polyphony
continues as motivs are layered in a dense polyphonic fabric. Symphonies 5
- 7 revert in many ways back to neoclassicism: no programs, voice de-emphasized,
and absolute forms are employed. The expansionist manners of Beethoven and
Brahms reappear per cyclical themes, long transitions and dense counterpoint.
The orchestra is almost as large as his other symphonies.
- Mvmt I Trauermarch (Funeral March)
- Large ternary design with extended coda. The themes reappear in the
second movement and the two form a larger relationship: intro to movement
proper. Three themes form the first group. Each theme subdivides into
long sub units (A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, and so forth).
- Mvmt II In Stormy Motion. With Utmost Vehemence.
- Presents new themes and retrieves themes from movement I. The form is
an extended sonata form with extensive counterpoint. He creates a dense
counterpoint by layering additional contrasting materials with as many
as four themes or motives interacting simultaneously. Simpler types of
this counter melody counterpoint was common in 19th century composers
(i.e. Schubert). It occurs frequently in his works.
- Mvmt III Scherzo
- His longest scherzo and likely the longest one in symphonic history
to date. He keeps the traditional trio and coda ending design, the trios
are even reduced texturally, but greatly extends each section developmentally
- motivically and with countermelodies for themes. He uses Beethoven's
technique of constructing long transitions that foreshadow the next theme
to even greater lengths.
- Mvmt IV Adagietto
- ABA form. Though this movement is not linked thematically to the finale
rondo, it does act like an introduction for it - especially per the attaca
score indication. The light instrumentation, just strings and harp, also
give it an introductory character. The harmonies work in an earlier style,
not thematic per se, but more a chain of suspensions which avoid repose.
- Mvmt V Rondo-Finale
- Seven short segments combine later to create the themes. The additive
layering of themes results a dense polyphonic texture. His treatment,
as in many earlier works, results in a continuous variation style as many
of the returning sections/themes return in an altered form - often combined
with another idea via countermelody. The related/derivative nature of
the material provides unity on many levels, just as their juxtaposition
provides dialogue on many levels. The changing strategies of fugato, imitation,
and countermelody maintain forward momentum.
- Summary:
- Polyphonic/linear practices anticipate the polyphony of Schoenberg and
others.
- His cyclic treatment with expanded forms push the traditional symphony
beyond its perceivable boundaries. This fusion of style is seen by other
composers in the late 19th century (Brahms, Strauss, etc.)
- He continues the use of folk idioms - mainly melodies - that points
to nationalistic trends and romantic folk music borrowings.
- His use of melodies from his own prior works is noteworthy (Bach and
others did the same thing.).
- He presents the symphonic summation of Austria-German tradition in terms
of trends begun by Haydn, Beethoven, and the others.
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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
The modern era presents several reactions to prior 19th century
traditions:
- Ultraexpressiveness.
- Effects instead of logic.
- The non periodic rhapsodic quality of the music.
- The infatuation with sound pallets.
Elements of continuation of 19th century practices also occurred:
- The infatuation with sound pallets continued with Impressionism and its
focus on color and sonority.
- The use of non-developmental forms.
- Neoromanticism developed:
- Lyric melody.
- Use of large orchestral forces.
- Neglect of chamber music.
- Dissonance as an expressive device
- Use of triadic harmony mixed with other trends, but in general strong
tonal centers.
- Programmatic elements.
- Neoclassicism developed:
- As much a focus on clear form as neoromantics loved lyric melody.
- Contrapuntal textures
- Small Chamber works.
- Rhythm reverted from its rhapsodic, spun forward treatment to become
more consistent. Many neoclassicists used rhythms that recall the style
galant.
- Triadic harmony was not as clear (counterpoint) and sense of tonality
was at times implied by repetition or stress.
- Impressionism:
- Takes new innovations along with romantic concepts and weaves an art
form that extends into the 20th century. The works of Debussy and Ravel
are the best examples. Debussy music uses chords in nonfunctional ways,
often bases harmonies on fourths (quartal), and yet writes in the expressive
and programmatic manner of romanticism. Most of his forms are rondo derivatives.
Impressionists generally avoid developmental forms, counterpoint, and
thin textures. Impressionism implies meaning, rather than stating it explicitly.
The most important new development was the birth of atonality or pantonality
as Schoenberg preferred:
- Pantonality emancipated pitches from their tonal bondage - a biased ordering
of importance.
- Serialism, the main technique of the Atonal movement, used all 12 pitches
in strict order. This system recalls the isomelic stategies of the late medieval
era (Machaut). Soon composers like Boulez applied the principle to rhythm,
dynamics, etc. forging what was called Total Serialism.
- Serialist Attributes:
- Strong metric and rhythm design/control.
- Smaller ensembles.
- Preference for traditional forms.
- Not Programmatic in the romantic sense.
- The most influential trend in the 20th century.
Other styles formed via experimentation:
- Electronic music using tape, synthesizer, or other devices, with or without
standard instruments. Olly Wilson's works serve as an example.
- Aleatory Music means music born of chance. Serialists used 'chance' at times
to determine the order of their pitches to be sure no human bias undermined
the music's organization. Cage and Penderecki, among many others, wrote pieces
in this genre. Directions often stipulate patterns to be repeated for durations
of time, etc. These practices lead to new notational procedures.
- Minimalism limits the materials of a piece to simple elements that are sustained
or repeated for extended periods of time, such as some works by Philip Glass.
- Postserial Modernism or Neoromanticism is the new neoromanticism. Remember
that writers like E.T.A. Hoffman were discussing neoromanticism in music in
the late 19th century. This neoromanticism marks a return to the systems of
the late 19th century.
As with some prior composers, many modern composers often present a blend of
these styles and are not simply classified into one genre.
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
The works of Strauss and Mahler mark the end of traditional romanticism.
Sibelius works in the same vein but imbues his pieces with a more personal style.
From 1900 to about 1930 lyrical neoromanticism coexisted with Impressionism.
The Expressionists, Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg, push in a new direction -
serialism. With their works, the German-Austria presence returns to modern music.
The total output of the many different factions points to fewer symphonies in
the traditional sense, but a number of new symphonic works related in scope
and importance begin to appear (see list on p.241). Works during this time reflect
the several divergent styles that existed. Only nine symphonies in the traditional
sense appeared between 1909 and 1920. Prokofiev's Classical Symphony
immediately popular, while works by Ives was rejected as too extreme. Elgar,
Sibelius, and Vaughn-Williams continued the work in the earlier style per Mahler.
Debussy and Ravel were the basis of French Impressionism. Stravinsky began as
a Russian Impressionist but was soon working in the Expressionistic style as
in the Rite of Spring. The use of programs continue to varying degrees
with composers like Scriabin and Vaughn-Williams. The symphony began to revive
after 1920 except in Italy, where opera remains the main art form.
The problem of terminology and definition arises as the word Symphony
takes on new dimensions. Many 20th century composers write a symphony, some
in modern terms, others in the traditional sense. Serial symphonies appear with
Reigger and Sessions. Stravinsky, Penderecki, and others write symphonies that
focus on texture and texture manipulations.
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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Jean Sibelius
(1865-1957; 1911)
Sibelius divides into four style periods:
1892-1900 - Finnish Impressionism: Finnish nationalism combined with Russian
influences and leads to a Finnish Impressionistic style where orchestral timbre
is emphasized.
- 1903-1909 - Classical Period: European exposure to the works of Beethoven
and others result in a strong sense of form and formal procedure. Lyricism
was now tempered by counterpoint and formal considerations.
- 1911-1915 - Complexity: Tonality, rhythm, harmony and form become more abstract.
The Russian occupation of Finland affects him along with health issues. Works
become more organic and tightly packaged. This is most advanced period as
shown in his 4th and 5th symphonies.
- 1924-1957 - Mature Style: 16th century counterpoint per Palestrina influences
him. In general, he synthesizes all prior traits into a mature style. His
symphonic poem Tapiola and symphonies 6 and 7 are finished.
His symphonies bear these transitions nicely and none are discarded as student
works per se - the early ones are in the Russian symphonic tradition, and the
rest correspond to their respective style period. His style is largely derived
from Beethoven, Finnish nationalism, and romantic orchestration:
- Short organic motives that are developed and weaved into longer
structures. Cyclical devices.
- An avoidance of romantic chromaticism melodically and harmonically.
- Clear forms.
- Tonal designs - almost classical use of basic triads, few 7ths or 9ths.
- Orchestrations like Tchaikovsky with a Beethoven size ensemble. Choirs
are generally kept separate. Octave doubling on melodies. WWs in pairs.
Not virtuosic like Strauss or overwhelming like Mahler. Brass often provide
sustained harmonic support.
- Finnish nationalism via melodies, modes (especially minor), and dance
rhythms.
- Counterpoint occurs but not in the sense of Mahler, Brahms, etc. some
imitation and fugato but mainly contrary motion, pedals, and countermelodies.
Study Example
Symphony No.4 (1911)
- Overview: This symphony forms Sibelius' reaction against modern trends.
Classically conceived with three movements in sonata form. A second movement
scherzo points to late romantic trends. It departs from his other symphonies
with its avoidance of long lyrical lines. The orchestration is light and color
effects are sparse. Forms are traditional but blurred at times. Cyclical germ
motives unify the entire work. These motives are short and concise. The tritone
motive is prominently featured. The character order of the movements is a
bit different.
- Mvmt I Tempo molto moderato, quasi adagio
- Seven basic motives unify the movement and two of these, especially
the tritone motive, appear frequently. The recap omits these two main
motives until the closing section.
- Mvmt II Allegro molto vivace
- The scherzo form is skewed as the final scherzo is only 5 bars long.
A healthy transition prepared the trio. The tritone idea returns (cyclical).
Three themes appear (A, B, and C) and the C theme is presented by flutes
in thirds (another Sibelius mannerism).
- Mvmt III tempo largo
- A tritone motive opens the movement (cyclical). Sibelius uses several
short themes/motives to weave a longer theme. The development features
his most used device: motives repeated over a pedal or ostinato. The recap
omits areas of the exposition, but more striking is the coda that states
the main theme of the next movement (cyclic continuation).
- Mvmt IV Allegro
- The finale is another sonata form. The opening materials recall the
tritone motif. New motives are introduced and combined as the beginning
evolves into a double exposition. The development divides into seven short
segments that focus on different procedures, but ostinato forms the common
thread under the main motives. of Measured tremolo recall the past (Stamitz).
The recap is abbreviates the opening material. More development appears
in the coda. The tritone interval is set in tonic key and placed in proper
context as it resolves to conclude the work in the final measures.
- Summary
- Sibelius creates an interconnected structure similar to Beethoven's
seventh symphony. It flows like a single movement work. His content and
treatment differs, but the sense of unity and foreshadowing is the same.
His handling of form a little more oblique. Some sonata forms explore
one theme per a synthesis of motives. The classical concept of aggressive
first theme and passive lyric second theme is now the exception. The internal
pacing/character is different with slow movements for I and III and a
quick II. The way Sibelius weaves the entire work, internal movements
and complete structure, from 3 or 4 motives illustrates the organic process
at its best. He takes the cyclical motivic principles of Beethoven and
Brahms and combines them with the transformative concepts of Berlioz,
Liszt, and Wagner. His relaxed handling of key relationships, static harmonic
regions, and areas of nonfunctional harmony are supported by his intellectual
formal designs.
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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Ralph Vaughn Williams
(1872-1958; 1915)
Vaughn Williams saw the end of romanticism and the beginning and end of impressionism
and expressionism. The English contribution to the symphony has been rather
slim. The jest of one statement quibbed that one has to wonder what problem
in England was to have a drought that lasted from Purcell to Walton. The influences
of his time ran from neoclassicism to aleatory music. English music, especially
church and folk music, played a significant part in his development along with
J.S. Bach, Wagner, Ravel, and Holst. The folk song and Tudor church music influence
manifests with his use of modality, declamatory (speech) rhythms, nonmetric
effects, simple triads, and cross relations. These polyphonic elements permeate
the works of 16th century English church musicians.
His melodies are often rhythmically complex with frequent 4ths and 5ths, not
usually quick, and often pentatonic or modal. The way the beat is obscured,
often to the point of no regard for bar lines and regular accents, recalls the
ars subtilior style of the late medieval period. Folk melodies forms
his other style of melodic design. Their regular pulse, diatonicism, and meter
often stand in contrast to the subtilior type.
His harmonic designs reflect Debussy and Ravel through the use of planing chords
and other parallelisms. He would stream chords over a contrapuntal texture.
The progressions are often modal and triadic. Textures are often contrapuntal
like the nonmetrical, nonimitative styles of Tudor church music. The polyphonic
designs include fugue, passacaglia, imitation, fugato, ground bass, ostinato,
countermelodies, and free counterpoint. His use of counterpoint remains tonal
unlike the polyphony of the serialists. His rhythms are complex at times with
regions of 2 against 3, conflicting meters, alternating meters, and so forth.The
orchestral colors are bland at times and he often focuses on string scoring.
His use of the saxophone is among the earliest in the repertoire. Frequent tutti
presentations occur. His orchestral forces are similar to those of Sibelius,
and therefore an extension of Beethoven. Approximately 60% of his movements
are developmental (sonata forms and scherzos). He creates epilogues that
serve as codas for the entire symphony, not just the finale. They bring back
earlier material and often resolve earlier thematic issues. His style basically
adds the English style to the evolution of the symphony.
His symphonies divide into three groups:
- Symphonies 1-3 are programmatic.
- Symphonies 4-6, and 9 are complex.
- Symphonies 7-8 revert to a simpler style.
His first symphony is basically a choral symphony that sets the poetry of Walt
Whitman. Three motives unify the entire work. A motto theme unifies the second
symphony which features the bell of Big Ben. Planing chords begin the third
symphony and 'chord streams' appear throughout the work. A wordless vocal solo
begins the finale. The materials are largely pentatonic. The fourth symphony
is the beginning of his nonprogrammatic phase. It is very dissonant with complex
polyphonic textures. A motto motive unifies the work. The final chord has no
third (ambiguity). The fifth symphony is dedicated to Sibelius and thus simpler,
more tonal, and more accessible. The scherzo with two trios, one duple and the
other triple, recall Schumann. The first movements ends on a major second (C-D)
but the epilogue ends in D major. The seventh symphony is programmatic: based
on Robert Scott's death while attempting to navigate the south pole and the
movie account of the same. His expands the orchestra and even uses a wind machine,
piano, organ, and solo soprano and women's chorus (both wordless). The program
forces a more expressive versus absolute treatment, which may explain why it
lacks his usual contrapuntal tendencies. The eighth symphony is much simpler,
string focused, shorter, and nondevelopmental. It refers to earlier works thematically.
The ninth is the most complex of all his works. It is tied together by a single
motive - his infamous vacillation between a major and minor third with the same
root. He uses all of his devices: Tudor style 16th century counterpoint, alternating
meters in the scherzo's trio, abbreviation of returning sections, combinatorial
forms (part form then sonata form as one movement), and his preoccupation with
1/2 step motives.
Study Example
Symphony No.6
- Overview: This is one of his four complex works, none of which are programmatic.
The orchestra includes tenor sax, bass clarinet, English horn, and xylophone.
The symphony is basically one long development section based on the primary
motive. The extensive counterpoint adds to the complexity. His main traits
appear: modality, folk tunes, planing, chord streams, and subtilior
rhythm and meter. The forms are articulated. He, like Sibelius, presents a
personal and nationalistic rendering of the symphony in the line of Beethoven.
Back to Top
Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Micheal Tippett
(1905-1998; 1951)
Tippett, like Sibelius and Williams, rejected atonal strategies
and wrote in the late 19th century style. His symphony no.3 is programmatic
and autobiographical. His early works spring from the styles of Beethoven, Sibelius,
Hindemith, etc. A change occurs with the second symphony toward greater complexity:
counterpoint, sectional forms, dissonance, and intricate rhythms. Thus his traditional
four movement first symphony stands in contrast to his two movement third and
single movement fourth symphonies. His third symphony has a Blues movement.
The third symphony is more abstract and points back to romanticism.
It departs from Beethoven with its mosaic design: contrasting episodic sections
instead of developmental motivic designs. His polychords, clusters, quartal,
and other harmonic variants add a high level of harmonic complexity to his works.
Tonality remained, but it was not functional. The symphony divides into two
large units that further divides into two subsections each. An abstract first
movement is followed by a vocal and expressive second. Tippett's main philosophy
juxtaposes motion and motionlessness. Thus his first movement vacillates between
the two states with each section adding more excitement. The second movement,
Lento, is more traditional but also uses the mosaic principle. The third
movement, Allegro molto, is sectional as drastically different themes are presented
in order with each theme forming a miniature work that elides into the next.
Further, each section features a completely different orchestral choir, horns,
then bass strings, then woodwinds, the violins, and the final section is for
solo piano. He then overlaps sections contrapuntally creating a very complex
texture as often seen in Ives. His finale is a philosophical rendering that
synthesizes Beethoven's 9th program with his own similar view that man is dispenser
of compassion. He also uses similar forces (voice/orchestra) and even quotes
Beethoven's opening tutti from the finale of the 9th. Tippett sets three Blues
choruses for the first section while the final section's three parts correspond
to Beethoven's idealism, man's mercy, and Tippett's philosophy of compassion.
Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Igor Stravinsky
(1882-1971; 1926)
His symphonies, for the most part are neoclassical. They
use reduced forces, traditional forms, and are more accessible than works from
his other periods. They, therefore, do not represent the innovations which place
Stravinsky among the top three of four composers of the 20th century. Without
any doubt, The Rite of Spring is one of the most important works
of the century. It simultaneously introduced the world to Primitivism
and Modernism. The 1913 performance of the ballet became the scene of
one of the most riotious premiers in the history of music. Saint-Seans left
after the first few notes complaining about the misuse of the bassoon's high
register. Parts of the audience immediately began to cough, hiss, and scorn
the work while others yelled at them to be quiet. Stravinsky wrote of the fiasco
in his 1936 autobiography:
....de Sacre du Printemps was given on May 28 at the evening performance.
The complexity of my score had demanded a great number of rehearsals, which
Monteux had conducted with his usual skill and attention. As for the actual
performance, I am not in a position to judge, as I left the auditorium [i.e.,
to stand in the wings] at the first bars of the prelude, which had at once
evoked derisive laughter. I was disgusted. These demonstrations, at first
isolated, soon became general, provoking counter-demonstrations and very quickly
developing into a terrific uproar. During the whole performance I was at Nijinsky's
side in the wings [Nijinsky was the choreographer]. He was standing on a chair,
screaming "sixteen, seventeen, eighteen"--they had their own method of counting
to keep time. Naturally, the poor dancers could hear nothing by reason of
the row in the auditorium and the sound of their own dance steps. I had to
hold Nijinsky by his clothes, for he was furious, and ready to dash on stage
at any moment and create a scandal. Diaghilev [the impresario] kept ordering
the electricians to turn the lights on or off, hoping in that way to put a
stop to the noise. That is all I can remember about that first performance.
Oddly enough, at the dress rehearsal, to which we had, as usual, invited a
number of actors, painters, musicians, writers, and the most cultured representatives
of society, everything had gone off peacefully, and I was very far from expecting
such an outburst....(Grove, Stravinsky, Igor)
The riot was loud the dancers couldn't hear the music. Fights broke out in
the audience and riots errupted outside the theatre. Stravinsky was 30 years
old and was the Paris sensation per his prior hits The Firebird and Petrushka.
These two works failed to prepare the audience for the primitivism of The
Rite of Spring.
Stravinsky began writing for the Paris Ballets Russes in 1910. In 1939 he came
to America because of the war. He wrote in every compositional style: tonal,
polytonal, and serialism. His brillant orchestrations began with the tutorage
of Rimsky-Korsakov. His personal style was evident from the beginning - especially
rhythmically.
His output covers every genre: Opera - The Rakes Progress; Concerto
- Dumbarton Oaks; Symphony - Symphony in C or Symphony in Three
Movements; Ballets - The Rite of Spring; and Chamber and Choral works
of various designs.
He uses additive forms in the ballets which aburptly juxtapose blocks of material.
His music more rhythmically than melodically identified. His inspiration came
while finishing The Firebird in St. Petersburg. He daydreamt of a solem
pagan rite where sage elders, seated in a circle, watched a young girl dance
herself to death. They were sacrificing her to appease the god of Spring and
that became the essence behind the ballet.
The rhythms, orchestral effects, and harmonic combinations were unheard of
at that time. The primitive rhythms and style relate the pegan primitiveness
of the ritual quite well. His next period was neoclassical and presented a rejection
of programmatic designs and a return to absolute form, balance, and objectivity
- but in more modern terms as in Pulcinella. His Orchestral Variations
represent his final period which explored the serial designs of Schoenberg and
Webern.
His style focuses on rhythm, harmony, and orchestral color. He works to liberate
rhythm from the "tyranny of the barline" - the tradition groups of
2 or 3 with accents coinciding with harmonic arrivals. He often introduces a
rhythmic pattern and then obfiscates it - as seen in The Rite. Rhythmic
polyphony occurs as one line maintains the beat while another plays an irregular
rhythmic pattern. Patterns will be juxtaposed creating polyrhythms. Rhythmic
motives shift locations (displaced). Rhythm becomes a point of tension and release
and works in conjunction with the harmonic design. Silence is a form of rhythm
and he uses it to great effect.
His harmonies focus on tonal centers. Ambiguous chords appear as in the second
movement of The Rite where an E major chord in the lower strings accompanies
an Eb7 chord in the winds. Some analysts have shown that he used a seven note
pitch class set in this section. The infamous Patrushka chord juxtaposes two
tritone related major triads (C/F#). Areas of tonal ambiguity are common - where
the third vacillates between major and minor.
His orchestrations feature unique instrument groupings. Each piece is unique
in this way. His orchestral pallet was extensive and striking. His music philosophy
advocates the "acceptance of limits as a means to freedom." (Grout,
849).
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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Arnold Schoenberg
Expressionism
(1874-1951; 1910)
Wagner's chromaticism (Tristan) deeply influenced Schoenberg.
Strauss' style can be heard in his symphonic poem Pelleas und Melisande
(1903). His Gurre-Lieder for five soloists, narrator, four choruses,
and large orchestra surpassed the size and complexity of Strauss and Mahler
and the expressive character of Wagner. His second period points away from these
post romantic trends and towards a new style - serialism. The works from this
period are for greatly reduced forces and often explore solo textures. Between
1905 - 1910 he expimented with Pantonality and wrote works of a non-serial
design. By 1923, his dodecaphonic theories were thoroughly conceived
into what is now commonly called serialism. The chromatic and harmonic degeneration
of tonality had been occuring for some time with Wagner, Strauss and others.
But these works were still tonally designed and the areas of atonality were
brief in comparison. Schoenberg extended Debussy's innovative harmonies to include
the emancipation of dissonance - meaning any group of notes could form a chord.
Expressionism, like Impressionism, derives from painting. Impressionism
dealt with the outer existence while expressionism focuses on the internal (consider
the philosophies of Freud). The expressionist deals with the deep dark secrets
of the mind, both conscious and subconscious.
His Theme and Variations for Orchestra (1928) is one of
his more influencial serial works. Four tone rows determine the pitch order
of the 24 measure melody. The same four rows in retrograde form the accompaniment.
Rhythms form an intrigal means of formal cohesion. Schoenberg use of contrapuntal
devices: canon, retrograde, inversion, and even passacaglia as the entire row
repeats in the bass for the fifth variation, present the neoclassical or even
neobaroque elements of his music.
Back to Top
Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Anton Webern
Expressionism
(1883-1945; 1914)
Webern, and Schoenberg's other disciple Berg, form the neoclassic
and neoromantic versions of serialism. Webern wrote no vocal works using Spechstimme
and worked from an abstract philosophy. Rhythms are complex with numerous duple
against triple, textures are thin, and counterpoint, especially canon, appears
frequently. His dynamics present a pin-point type of controll - especially the
softs. The most noteable aspect of his style is his orchestration of the melody
that moves through the orchestral instruments that he called Klangfarbenmelodie.
Webern skillfully uses timbres to mitigate dissonances. His music is, on the
whole, less dissonant than Schoenberg's - hence the latter's inference that
Webern designed tonal rows.
The Symphonie (1928) is cast for nine solo instruments
in two movements: a sonata form followed by a theme and seven variations. The
prime order of the row begins the work. Contrapuntal devices such as canon,
retrograde, and inversion permeate the work. Entire sections are retrograde
versions of other sections.
Study Examples
Review Concepts
- Be familiar with the composer's midlife dates (flourishing dates). These
dates mean more to me, and often synchronize with their most important works
and mature style. They also let you place composers "head to head"
at the apogee of their career. For instance, Haydn lived much longer than
Mozart, and was well his senior, but, their midlife dates are 1770 (Haydn)
and 1771 (Mozart).
- Every romantic period composer lived in shadow of Beethoven. Discuss how
some of them dealt with that specter. Is this why the symphony begins to decline
in the romantic period? What others reasons are there?
- Be able to discuss the debate of absolute versus programmatic music. Be
able to define both terms. Consider Liszt's, Hanslick's and Wagner's own words.
- Define idée fix and leitmotif.
- Who were the major innovators in regards to form? How did it change?
- Who were the major innovators in regards to orchestration? How did change?
- Be able to discuss the main style traits for Schubert that cover his continuation
of the past (first 6 symphonies) and anticipation of the future (lyrical themes
and lyrical 1st theme in sonata form; little counterpoint, if at all; WW intros
some primary themes, and use of folk melodies; output - 1st 6 syms. were Haydn/Mozart
style; last two innovative; eight complete symphonies).
- Discuss Mendelssohn's style and be sure to address his baroque borrowings
with specific examples from his Italian (no. 4 - fugal 42 measure dev. that
eventually includes 4 voices, classical forms, little chromaticism, conservative
tonal scheme), Scottish (motivic designs per Longyear's analysis), or Reformation
(no. 5) symphonies. What elements look to the future (waltz nature of his
scherzo, some motivic (cyclical) treatment, continuous performance of all
four movements (Scottish - no.3) and use of folk melodies. Output - four standard
4 mvmt symphonies and one that combines symphonic and cantata form. Also consider
his importance as a conductor/orchestrator and baroque revivalist.
- Discuss Schumann's 'lose handling of form' by citing a few specific examples.
How does this loosening of form anticipate ensuing romantic trends? How does
the continuous nature of the fourth symphony and the motivic designs of both
No.4 and No. 1 look back to Beethoven? His programmatic piano works stand
in contrast to his intendedly non-programmatic orchestral works..
- Berlioz creates the first marquis programmatic work. Discuss his unique
orchestration strategies (cross section presentation of accompaniment and
melody, 4 note chords in the basses) and special effects (echo, distancing
thunder, etc.). Why is his over-the-top reputation largely a myth? How did
his designs affect structural tonality and why? Can you discuss earlier programmatic
works [Haydn's Le Matin and Beethoven's Pastoral (No.6)]?
- Describe how Liszt uses other devices, as did Berlioz, to create structural
unity. Be sure to include a careful discussion of thematic transformation
and orchestration (hint: Faust III). How is he an extension of Berlioz? How
does he differ (think formal design - symphony and sonata)? Does counterpoint
really lend itself to programmatic intentions? How often does it appear in
Berlioz or Liszt (remember the fugues)? Liszt uses some extended harmonies
that anticipate the future: augmented triads in succession, parallel chords,
chords moving in chromatic 3rds, etc.
- How does idée fixe differ from thematic transformation: Thematic
transformation changes themes (multiple themes) to convey a change of that
particular theme's character, usually by altering anything (or everything)
except the pitch. Themes can represent people, objects, emotions, animals,
states of nature, etc. The Idée fixe is similar in concept,
except Berlioz uses it as a single permeating thread to unify a work - not
multiple idée fixes per se, . Generally the rhythm, tempo, and
harmony change while the pitches remain consistent. The next manifestation,
Wagner's Leitmotiv, assigns motives to many elements of the program
(people, objects, emotions, animals, states of nature, etc.). These motives
work to foreshadow, introduce, or reintroduce characters, moods, events, so
forth, and are much more specific than their predecessors. Berlioz's idée
fix haunts each movement, Liszt's themes represent personalities and their
changing states of emotion; and Wagner's Leitmotiv represents virtually
any narrative element - and thus need to remain recognizable (not often mutated).
All of these cyclical unifying devices - recurring themes or motives - continue
ideas found in earlier operas by Mozart (Don Giovanni and Cosi fan
tutti), Weber (Die Freischütz), and instrumental works by
Beethoven (5th and 7th syms.), Mendelssohn (3rd/4th sym.), and Schumann -
and even to some extent, symphonies by Mozart (sym No.40) and Haydn (London
sym).
- Brahms is known for several things: on the traditional side - being an abstract
(absolute) composer, reverting to Beethoven's classical style, incorporating
heavy counterpoint, lyrical but motivically sectional themes, and using baroque
forms (no. 4, IV); on the progressive side - intricate rhythm schemes (multiple
meters, alternating meters, 2 against 3, syncopation, and displaced accents),
tonal ambiguity and modality (various keys/modes of E), Mozartian chromaticism
(melodic, linear, and harmonic), continuous phrasing (overlapping or elided),
plagal relationships, and being friendly with Clara Schumann (oops.).
- Tchaikovsky style traits: contrasting tone colors (orchestration) over repeated
material mark his style of development (extension) that rarely includes counterpoint.
His abundance of tunes, scales, repetition, sequence, color, numerous sections,
folk themes, variation, Russian festival finales, waltz, and overlapping expressive
climaxes form a uniquely romantic style. Study aspects of his orchestration
style (choirs, etc.). How programmatic is his symphonies, compared to his
other forms (Symphonic poems, overtures, etc.)
- What are Bruckner's Gesangsperiode and Urthema and where do
they generally appear? How does he expand the orchestra? How does he use brass
differently (themes)? What are some typical traits (length, intro with vague
tremolo in strings, developmental internal movements (expansionist), counterpoint
(crab), lyrical melodies, orchestral choirs, Wagnerian traits, etc.)
- Dvorak's use of folk elements (tunes, rhythm, mode) form his best known
trait. His symphonies divide into German models (1, 2, 3, 6, and 7) and folk
models (4, 5, 8, and 9). Half of his movements are developmental forms (unlike
Tchaikovsky) including Scherzos and some slow movements. He extends themes
by spinning them out into longer ideas (sub phrases more than motivically).
His developments show his German influences. Some third movements are dance
(waltz) types and many finales carry forward the dance nature of the earlier
traditions. Review his general traits (given above) in terms of his seventh
symphony.
- Liszt is credited with creating the symphonic poem. Typically a one movement
work. Smetana's Ma vlast is the first symphonic poem cycle (6 symphonic poem
set). How does nationalism manifest in the Smetana's collection? Be able to
briefly discuss the evolution of the symphonic poem from its earliest beginnings
with programmaticism in Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Berlioz through Strauss.
Cite major composers, discuss forms or lack of, orchestration, programmatic
inferences, orchestration (in general terms), etc. Does the symphonic poem
present an evolution of the symphony? If so, how? How long did it last, when
did it end and why.
- Who are the major figures involved in the evolution of melody, rhythm, orchestration,
and harmony. Consider how melody changed from a periodic design per the enlightenment,
to a rhapsodic design (Berlioz, Liszt and sym. poem composers), to an endless
melody (Wagner), to 20th century pantonal/serial practices per Schoenberg
and Webern.
- How do composers such as Ives, Copland, Penderecki, Sessions, Zwilich, Ellington,
and Bernstein fit into the mix? Do they carve out a new trend, revert to the
past, or both.
- How does Wagner's concept of Gesamtkunstwerke present the ultimate
synthesis of vocal and instrumental genres. Think about why some theorists
would call the combination of the two "polyphony." (Frankenstein).
- Can you clearly explain the concepts of idée fixe, Thematic
transformation, and now, Leitmotiv. Can you provide specific examples?
Consider how Liszt transforms the cello theme at the beginning of Mazeppa
into a charming D major theme at the end, and, how Wagner's Yearning Motiv
in Tristan never resolves until the final chords of the Liebestod.
Do you clearly understand how these devices along with the concept of
Rhapsodic melody - which is often a spun-out procedure - departs from periodic
melodic structures per Beethoven, Haydn, and Mozart.
- How does developmental procedure fair after Brahms? Can contrapuntal techniques
and rhapsodic (spun out) melody coexist, or are they mutually exclusive? How
often do we continue to see countermelody, as opposed other contrapuntal techniques?
- How does rhythm evolve in complexity? Consider how rhythm forms the last
great frontier in Western Art music. Brahms is a primary rhythmic innovator,
but what about Berlioz, Liszt, or even Schumann for that matter. How many
themes have had a stronger rhythmic versus melodic identity? Folk rhythms
are generally not complicated, Bartok excepted. So, how should we view the
rhythms of Wagner, Strauss, Schoenberg, or Harris (polyphrased metrical patterns
of 9/4 and 4/2)?
- How does Wagner's chromaticism, melodically and harmonically, anticipate
Schoenberg and the eventual break down of tonality? (Remember that sonata
form is held together by TONAL and THEMATIC strategies.) In the same line,
how does Strauss' works (along with the other programmatic composers) push
the formal designs of Symphonic form (the four movement work) and sonata form
into totally new genres?
- Be able to describe symphonic practices in modern era. Can you align composers
with specific trends? At times they seem to vacillate from progressive to
regressive.
- Stravinsky had three style periods: 1) Russian romanticism (Rite of
Spring), 2) Neo-classicism (Dumbarton Oaks Concerto), and 3) an Atonal
period after Schoenberg died.
- Prokofiev wrote progressive programmatic works in a chromatic style
with Russian elements, but also wrote The Classical Symphony in
neo-classical form (listen to it and look at the analysis of it).
- Vaughn-Williams wrote an excellent symphonic work, Variations on
a Theme by Thomas Tallis, that sounds like a work born in the Renaissance.
- Carl Orff's Carmina Burana combines thick textures and mordern
forces, both vocal and instrumental, in a medieval rendering of themes
and forms that remains a one of a kind work.
- Penderecki wrote works of a programmatic nature requiring new notational
techniques as in his Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima and
yet also wrote a Classical Symphony.
- Copland and Ives are the first major American symphonists. Explain
how they present two very different and unique versions of indigeous American
symphonic tradition.
- Consider how few serialists were successful symphonists? Why? Reigger
symphony no. 3 survives mainly because it vacillates between serial pracitces,
pracitces he never ridgedly obeyed, and tonal practices frequently within
a single work. Variation, repetition, fugue, and imitation are not serial
strategies, yet he used them frequently by extracting motives from his
tone rows (remember the magic square!). Is it possible to construct a
quasi-tonal tone row? Schoenberg accused Webern of doing exactly that!
Sessions is the other main serialist - but consider how evolved from tonal
practices to serialism in his last years (remember Stravinsky?)
- Consider how Debussy's melodies and harmonies differ from past practices.
His extensive use of mode and the whole tone scale gives his works a distinctive
voice and point away from tonality. His planing, use of parallelism (fourths
and quartal harmonies) points back to organum in some ways. (others used mode
extensively - Bartok, Stravinsky, Brahms, Ravel, and most nationalistic composers).
- Consider how the Cantus Firmus and isorhythmic techniques relate to the
serial strategies. Why is it difficult for serialism to work as a four movement
symphonic form? Can serialism sustain long movements?
- Many modern composers use continuous variation concepts. This often involves
a rondo design where returing sections are developed or varied thematically.
The technique combines a sense of return and forward momentum. Consider how
this concept begins in the scherzo-trios of Beethoven. It can also describe
the melodic strategies of transforming themes to some extent. Anytime the
composer varies a returning idea (recaps, themes, etc.) the process of continous
variation is at work to some degree. You can hear this in the Zwilich excerpt.
- How did the voice evolve back into symphonic trends? Be able to discuss
Beethoven, Wagner, Mahler, and Ellington. (I realize placing Ellington with
these symphonists could be suspect. But his approach is symphonic in several
works and thus merits inclusion). In particular, what role does the voice
play with these composers? With Beethoven the voice is supported by the symphony.
How much instrumental focus occurs in Sym. No.9: IV's variation form? How
does Wagner place voice and instrument on more equal footing? What are the
responsibilities of the instrumentalists? How does Mahler set the role of
the voice? Which movement does it appear? How does he use the orchestra? How
does Ellington use the voice, or the other instruments for that matter? Can
you explain cross sectional voicing and instrumentalized voice
in terms of an Ellington example?
Listening Examples that need to be accurately identified:
- Liszt - Mazeppa (ABA)
- Strauss - Don Quixote (Theme -Variations)
- Wagner - Tristan prelude (ABA)
- Smetana - The Moldau (Fantasia)
- Franck - Sym. in D minor: I (Sonata Form)
- Brahms - (Sym. No.4: IV Passacaglia/Chaconne - Sym. No. 1 Sonata Form)
- Mahler - (Sym. No.5: I Large ABA - Sym. No.2: IV - Through composed)
- Prokofiev - Symphony No.1 (The Classical Symphony Mvmt I: Sonata form)
- Stravinsky - Rite of Spring (Programmatic ballet overture)
- Webern Op.21 - Symphonie (Serial)
- Schoenberg Varations (Theme only - Serial)
- Penderecki - Threnody (Through Composed)
- Ives - Putnam's Camp (polytonal and thematic, know about the program, Collage/Pastiche
form)
- Reigger - Sym. No.3: I (Serial sonata form)
- Zwilich - Sym. No. 3: III (3 mvmt symphony. Mvmt III features continuous
variations - Rondo)
- Ellington - Transblucency (AABA w/ repeated choruses)
- Shostakovich Sym.5:I (CD 8)
- Harris No.3 (Just use the first 3 minutes) (CD9)
- Schuman No.3 Part I Passacaglia and Fugue.(CD9)
Questions to ask while listening and considering style:
- When is tonality established? How stable is it?
- What type of form is it? Does it project the style of the classical symphony
in number of movements and character? How does it deviate from the past, or
does it revert to the past?
- How is sonata form used? Does the exposition return intact? How is the development
designed? Is there an introduction and/or a coda? What type of introduction
is it? If so, is it long or short (motto), and what tempo? What type of coda
is it? Does it simply restate themes, introduce new themes, or provide more
development? How does the nature of the third movement change in its quest
for a developmental design: Minuet and Trio becomes Scherzo and Trio -then
the waltz, etc. Does it revert back to a dance form (Waltz)?
- How are the themes presented? One main and secondary theme? Multiple themes
(groups)? Are themes rhythmically/motivically designed or lyrical with sequences?
What is the character order (fast/rhythmic then slow/lyric)?
- What types of transitions appear? Do they introduce the next idea? Are they
modulatory? Are they contrapuntal or lyrical? Are transitions areas of tonal
ambiguity?
- What developmental strategies appear? Is it contrapuntal: motivic splicing
and dicing, imitation, inversion, retrograde, contrary motion, etc.? Is it
a lyrical extension by sequencing and repetition? Is it simply more themes?
Is it the main theme again? Is development restricted to the "Development"
or are themes developed immediately upon introduction? Is the work continuously
developed?
- How does the composer unify the work? Is it unified tonally? Motivically,
Cyclically (motto, idée fixe, Thematic transformation, Leitmotiv)?
Thematically, Rhythmically, or Orchestrally? What forms the main unifier?
- What type of orchestration is used? Is a simple string quartet design? Are
WWs featured? Is there any antiphonal activity between choirs, or soloists
and choirs? Any new instruments? Any unusual use of instruments? Any cross
sectional voicings? Who introduces the themes? How are brass and percussion
used?
- How is rhythm used? In many ways rhythm has been neglected in the face of
melody and tonality. It forms the last great frontier in Western music. Are
the rhythms rather bland? Dancelike? Syncopated? Displaced? Complex?
- How is meter conveyed? Or is it? Are there complex metric schemes, alternating
meters and so forth?
- How is accent and stress used? Does it displace the beat?
- Is there a program? If so, can you hear it? If you can hear it, how does
it manifest?
- We don't have to like every work we hear, but we do have to understand EXACTLY
why we do or do not like a particular piece. For instance, instead of saying
"I hate that piece," one might say, "the themes are poorly
designed, the transitions lose forward momentum, the orchestration works against
itself as the brass accents overpower the melodic ideas, there's no sense
of structure or unity," etc... Knowing why you like what you like helps
you find more of what you like. Also, understanding why you don't like something
often forms a bridge toward respecting it, and better helps you to tolerate
it.
Interpolate Longyear with Liszt and Brahms forward - get Bach chaconne to hear
beside Brahms No.4 IV.
Ives article on past music and why few modern composers are performed (save
for 20th c. chapter)
Find a recording of the Beethoven 7th symphony's Finale Irish theme.
Industrial revolution per Yudkin book.
Beethoven performance in Lexington.
Copy Symphonie fan. out of Yudkin book.
Copy: "Cyclic Form and Tonal Relationships in Mendelssohn's "Scottish"
Symphony," In Theory Only, IV (1979), 38-48.
Remember to do review concepts for Ch. 3
Beethoven issues with hearing loss, Heiligestadt
testament, darkness to light: beginning vs. ending keys. The birth of the
modern composer separate from performer and conductor.
First Quiz:
T F The romantic period is the high point of the concert symphony - both
in sheer number and popularity.
Who is the earliest instrumental symphony composer? (hint: 'now that's Italian')
What is Empfindsamer stil and how does it differ from Sturm und Drang?
What is the difference between an 'absolute' and a 'programmatic' symphony?
How did orchestration change over time: from baroque to classical to romantic
to modern?
What's the difference between idée fixe and leitmotif? Who invented
each?
T F Haydn wrote symphonies with programmatic content.
Haydn is mainly know for what kind of symphonic style?
Mozart is mainly know for what kind of symphonic style?
How does a composer design a development section?
How has development as a technique changed from preclassical through Beethoven
symphonies
What is scherzo?
How has the purpose for symphonic style music changed from baroque to classical
to romantic to modern?