Eastern Kentucky University
Department of Music
Mus 555/755: Symphonic Literature
Summer Session I

M-F 9:30 - 11:00

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Course Syllabus/ Course Schedule/ Listening Assignments/


Lecture Notes:
Introduction and Preface
Chapters:
1, 2, 3, 4,
5 (Romantic Period): Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Program Music
, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner,
Absolute Music, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Dvorak, Franck,
Symphonic Poem, Liszt, Smetana, Musorgsky, Debussy, Strauss, Mahler,
20th Century idioms, Sibelius, Vaughn Williams, Tippett, Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Webern
*******

Print Lecture Notes as a Word Document


Introduction


Trends in history, not just music history, often present a dichotomy between tradition and experimentation. There seems to be a constant tug between established, accepted practices, and innovation. A general understanding of the style periods forces us to corral common traits and collective attributes. As we move towards the specifics we find an undercurrent of individual innovation and creative flux. Consider how long humanity thought the world was flat? That collectively accepted concept was changed by one individual's intuition, courage, and innovation. Galileo Galilei mathematically proved the world was round, and that in fact, the Earth traveled around the sun - not vice versa. His radical theories were an affront to his contemporaries. He was ridiculed by the church, nobility, and many of his fellow scientists. Music history works much the same way. Consider the war of words between Artusi and Monteverdi (and his brother) regarding whether or not lyrics were the 'mistress' of music. Here the problem is made more difficult since musical 'truths' rely on aesthetic reception, whereas scientific 'truths' can be proven concretely. People can convincingly argue for and against the validity of a musical work, Pierrot Lunaire for instance, but arguing about whether or not the Earth is round would be absurd. The common means of measuring the 'truth' in both music or science is by comparison. We learn by measuring the differences and commonalties between musical periods, composers, and their compositions.

Preface


There is often a difference between period style, the collective traits of an era, and individual style. Generally speaking, period style reflects established practices and traditions while individual style often pulls away from those norms and constraints. This dichotomy means that some composers, theorists, historians, and performers will work within the established period style while others forge differing trends and practices. Some personalities may vacillate between the two extremes depending upon the period of their life or the particular compositional genre. Consider how Beethoven's style changed between 1800 and 1825 - his addition of instruments (more horns, trombones, timpani, etc.), expansion of range, elision between movements, cyclical thematic treatment, length, multiple themes, new themes appearing in codas and developments, developments themselves, and the final addition of the voice in the 9th symphony.

This course assumes a general understanding theory and history. The text has a glossary to assist with idiomatic terms. I would highly encourage students to look outside this text to gain a complete understanding of the trends and personalities in question. Pertinent sources include:

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Chapter 1
Antecedents of the Symphony
Baroque

Score Excerpts

Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713; fl.1683); Trio Sonata in F major, Op.3, No.9 (1689).

J.S. Bach (1685-1750; fl.1717); Orchestral Suite No.3 in D major, Gavotte (ca. 1720).

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741; fl.1709); Concerto Grosso in A minor, Op. 3, No. 8 (1715).

George Frederic Handel (1685-1759; fl.1722); Messiah Overture (1741).

Giovanni Pergolesi (1710-1736; fl.1723); Sinfonia from L'Olimpiade (1735).

Optional Works:

Review concepts:

  1. Name the 5 main precursor forms to the classical symphony and explain specifically how they influenced the symphony.
  2. How did texture, rhythm, harmony, melody, instrumentation, and reception theory change during this era?
  3. What is Fortspinnungtypus?
  4. The birth of the symphony has two main progenitors, dramatic vocal works (opera, cantata, and oratorio), and an increase in instrumental music. Be able to discuss both and how exactly they influenced the symphony.
  5. Be able to explain how binary form contains the basic elements of sonata form. Consider the larger ternary minuet-trio-minuet da capo aspects. Sonata form is a tonal structure, what is the significance of melodic return (A')? Consider the structural importance of themes/tonality.

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Chapter 2
The Pre-classical Symphony
The Classical Period

Score Excerpts

G. Sammartini (1701-1775; 1738); Symphony No.1 in C major, (c.1720-1740).

J. Stamitz (1717-1757; 1737); Sinfonia No. 8 (La Melodia Germanica No. 1) (c.1755)

Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809; 1770)
(Preclassical)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1751-1791; 1771)
(Preclassical)


Review concepts:

  1. Compare High Baroque, High Classical, Rococo, and Style Galant. Think in terms of imitation and counterpoint, or lack thereof, periodic phrasing, sequence, rhythm (perpetual or not?) and cadence.
  2. Consider the baroque doctrine of affections and how it changes via empfindsamer stil and Sturm and Drang. How do these affective doctrines manifest musically?
  3. What are musical manifestations of the enlightenment (the Age of Reason).
  4. How did the middleclass influence musical demand and development in the classic era?
  5. Where are the early symphonic schools and what did each contribute (North German/Berlin - CPE Bach and Graun, Mannheim - J. Stamitz, Viennese - Gossman, Monn, and Wagenseil, Italian - Sammartini, Jomelli, and Galluppi)?
  6. Explain how the 'true' symphony evolved from the sinfonia and overture. When and how does it shed its vocal trappings? How does each movement's complexity and character evolve?
  7. Discuss how orchestration evolves from the baroque to the preclassical period (rococo). Be sure to include changes in prominence, duties, and facility. Are there any new instruments? Do any disappear?
  8. Explain the early styles of Haydn and Mozart. Discuss the preclassical elements that persist and the new strategies that appear.

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Chapter 3
The Classical Symphony

The classical symphony matures during the 1770s, around the mid-life dates of Haydn (1770) and Mozart (1771). Their works denote the High Classic period. The four movement scheme becomes the common form:

  1. Mvmt 1 Fast/Serious - Sonata form: primary and second theme in contrasting tonalities, development with tonal contrast and motivic experimentation, and a recapitulation of both themes in tonic.
  2. Mvmt 2 Slow - Variety of forms (variation, part form or sectional, sonata form, sonatina, etc.), often reduced instrumentation, and possible WW or Brass focus.
  3. Mvmt 3 Moderate (lively) dance - Minuet and trio. Trios with reduced textures and a WW/string focus. Not a developmental form yet, but will mature in the hands of Beethoven where the middle section (dev. area) becomes a scherzo.
  4. Mvmt 4 Fast/light - The use of duple meter rondos, sonata-rondos, and sonata forms. The last mvmt has a lighter nature than the first mvmt.

Baroque/Rococo Legacies:

  1. Trio sonata (3 voice - paired trebs and bass) and concertato (solo/tutti) textures.
  2. Second themes presented by WW or brass, strings still purvey the main theme.
  3. Modulation as a developmental device.
  4. Slow first movement introductions per French overture.
  5. Trios featuring reduced textures of WW or strings per divertimento.
  6. Dance nature of mvmt 3.
  7. Light, quick nature of finale (rococo)
  8. Measured Tremolo
  9. Harmonic sustain via string obbligato.

Classical concepts:

  1. Developments that feature motivic exploration via counterpoint, imitation, or fugal experimentation.
  2. More emphasis of WW, brass, and timpani.
  3. Firm 3 theme design (1st, 2nd, and closing).
  4. Expanded length.
  5. Definitive tunes with motivic design.
  6. Expanded articulation.
  7. 1/16th note countermelodies lend a contrapuntal quality.

Classical Orchestration:

  1. Pairs of winds (fl., ob., cl., bass., horns, and tpt. Two timpani (increases harmonic support). Strings still present the main theme - Haydn and Mozart feature soprano winds more.
  2. Brass mostly reserved for harmonic accents and sustain.

Baroque/Rococo concepts gradually left behind:

  1. Three movement sinfonia form.
  2. Structures with poorly a conceived theme.
  3. Monothematic design.
  4. Irregular sonata (loose Binary) forms, so termed because they had no development. The concept of development is crucial to the sovereignty of the instrumental genre.
  5. Dependence upon vocal forms for exposure.
  6. Change of purpose: from an opening work to get people seated (sinfonia or Fr. overture per opera, cantata, or oratorio) to the main event of the concert (concert symphony).

Haydn (1770)

 

Mozart (1771) - Middle Period

Mozart (Late) (1788 - six weeks during the summer)

Haydn (1771) (late works)

    1. More dynamic emphasis.
    2. Heightened dramatic content (Sturm und Drang).
    3. Greater length.
    4. Increased counterpoint - especially in the development.
    5. More rhythmic syncopation.
    6. Harpsichord drops out of the texture.
    7. Humorous elements of false reprise (recap.), Surprise, and nonmusical intent (like the farewell, the clock, etc.).
    8. Use of English folk songs point ahead to romanticism.
    9. Most first mvmts have a slow introduction to a fast allegro - usually duple. Most second mvmts are variation form - all slow. All third mvmts are minuets with trios - second halves became developments. Finales are brisk sonata forms or sonata-rondos - all in duple meter.
    10. Theme treatment - Haydn was unique. Some second themes are first themes in dominant (remember the monothematic aesthetic). Development keys are often mediant, submediant, or plagal. Only one starts in the dominant. Most of his development themes are based on the primary theme.
    11. Orchestration - Haydn uses the typical late classical cast of instruments: WWs in pairs with strings, timpani, horns and tpts. He adds triangle, cymbal, and bass drum to the Military (100) and doesn't use clarinets regularly until the second set of London symphonies (99-104). Do not miscredit Beethoven for the addition of the timpani - Beethoven's innovation lies in his melodic and featured use of the timpani.

     

    Haydn came to Esterhazy Eisenstadt court in 1761. He became kapellmeister in 1766. His employer, Prince Nickolas Esterhazy, died in 1790. His son came to power and greatly reduced court activities and Haydn's duties. Haydn was contacted by Londonite Johann Salomon who convinced him to come to London and put on a series of symphonies. He left in December of 1791 saying good-bye to Mozart for the last time - Mozart dies in December of 1791. Haydn returned to Vienna in 1792. Before returning to London in 1794, he takes Beethoven as a pupil (actually came to study with Mozart), writes two quartet collections, op. 71 and 74, completes symphony No.99 and begins 100 and 101. So, the 1790s see the death of Mozart, Haydn's London symphonies, the maturation of the Classic style, and Beethoven's move to Vienna and his midlife point (1798).

Review concepts:

  1. How did Haydn and Mozart change symphonic tradition?
  2. Compare Haydn and Mozart in regards to style: rhythm, melody, form, etc.
  3. Explain how Haydn and Mozart influenced each other.

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Chapter 4
The Symphonies of Beethoven
(1770-1827; 1798)

Beethoven's contributions to music are still being measured. He spans the classic and romantic periods and in many ways, exhausts the possibilities of the symphony. Those that follow him are haunted by his accomplishments and struggle to walk in his foot steps. Classicism produced symphonic form: a work of four or more movements comprised of a sonata form first movement, a slow lyrical second mvmt., a dance based minuet-trio-minuet, and rondo or sonata finale. It was a clearly understood language by all: audience, composer, and patron. It was functional. It had, and has, a target market. Classical works were and are popular pieces, and popular music - a simple look at the works played by any orchestra or philharmonic is permeated with works by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven - Brahms marks a continuation of this aesthetic. Do you often seen Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner? Romanticism marks a departure from form derived works. It is the birth of the individual, the artist, art for art's sake; it is a manner of personal self expression divorced from the need to explain, entertain, or defend.

Beethoven's contributions to Classicism (consider how many of these are extensions of trends originating with Haydn and Mozart):

His symphonies fall into four categories (1800 - 1825):

Its simply enough to think of 1, 2, and 4 as shorter works with classical attributes, and smaller developments. These works reflect the galant rhythm that served to unite unrelated elements. These works use filler passages, unrelated cadences, and sequential devices to unite sections. Symphony no. 8 derives transitions from motives used in the themes. Galant rhythms do not dominate activity.

Symphony no.7 is the summation of trends found in nos. 3 and 5. Both nos. 5 and 7 are unified by a pervasive motive. The 7th symphony is based primarily on one motive, while the 5th is not (but close). The 5th breaks down into the normal sections and subsections, while the 7th is, for all practical purposes, a cyclical work with much more continuity.

 

 

 

Score Excerpts

Symphony No.5 in c minor (1807).

Symphony No.7 in A major (1812).

Symphony No.8 in F major (1812).

 

Review concepts:

  1. Understand the classical and romantic groupings of his symphonies and know a little about Nos. 6 (Pastoral - programmatic/nature) and 9 (sym + voice) inconjunction with those in the required listening section.
  2. Many scholars remark that Beethoven's symphonies simultaneously mark the apogee of the classical period and introduce romantic period trends. Explain how this is so?
  3. How, or why, did Beethoven change the minuet into the scherzo? What changed in regards to form, development, and character?
  4. How does orchestration change with Beethoven?
  5. How does the art of transition change with Beethoven?
  6. Many scholars talk about how Beethoven juxtaposes rhythmic themes against lyrical themes, give an example of this.
  7. How does Beethoven manifest romantic phrases like: "art for art's sake," "the rise of the great man," and so forth, discuss how the position of the musician changed over time.
  8. How was Beethoven received in his own day?
  9. Who commissioned his first large public concert?
  10. Explain how Beethoven innovated sonata form.

 

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony

 

Overview:
Many elements change in the wake of Beethoven:

  1. Two practices evolve in the wake of Beethoven: absolute and programmatic music. A rivalry develops between them and the debate at times is rather intense.
  2. The number of symphonies, as a genre in 'absolute' terms, drops significantly per composer and for the period as a whole. Composers were confronted with the problem of what to do with the symphony after Beethoven. He had expanded, developed, and innovated symphonic form to what many consider to be its final conclusion. His shadow loomed large over anyone wanting to work in the symphonic medium - hence the push toward programmatic designs.
  3. Programmatic composers metamorphose the symphonic concept into symphonic poems (Liszt) and tone poems (R. Strauss).
  4. Cyclical ideas like the idée fixe (Berlioz) and the leitmotif (Wagner) become the new standard unifiers. Thematic transformation (Liszt) raises the cyclical concept to another level.
  5. Generally speaking, symphonic form is a tonal form - a collection of movements with formal constraints dependent upon tonal introduction, contrast, and recall. Thematic recall, born of the rounded binary, concerto, and Da Capo design, add further structural unity. These elements are musical elements devoid of programmatic intent. Once the tonal and formal design is altered beyond recognition, as with Wagner (tonal) and Strauss (formal), the traditional concept of the symphony no longer exists. These changes occur in the hands of the programmatic composers. Their formal and tonal designs are program derived - not dependent upon absolute idioms. In many ways this change recalls the debate between Artusi and Monteverdi. It was Monteverdi's "secunda practice" that caused such a stir with traditionalists. The unprepared dissonances, unusual leaps, and chromaticism that shocked his contemporaries were not musically derived, but were instead derived from the lyrical content.
  6. Melody becomes more personal, expressive, less formulaic and periodic. Expression is often realized through increased dissonance and chromaticism - melodically, harmonically, and tonally (remember Mozart?). These trends manifest in all romantic composers but Wagner pushes chromaticism to the extreme. Distant and unexpected modulations begin to appear.
  7. Strict contrapuntal development and procedure declines while the freer use of countermelodies and other contrapuntal melodic strategies expand amid the quest for lyric melodies (Berlioz and Tchaikovsky). These long spun melodies with elaborate extensions and tangents often have more nested motivic development than most Beethoven symphonies. Brahms once remarked that any melody that sounded splendidly tunefully and natural, as if it was conceived in an instant, surely took many hours to create. Cyclic ideas become the main unifier.
  8. Forms vacillate from miniature to massive. New forms include the symphonic poem, tone poem, music drama, program symphony, and lyric works for solo piano. Concertos, string quartets, and other pre-romantic forms also continue. The concept of a four movement work with breaks between movements, gradually melts into one long, complete, fully integrated work in the hands of many romantics.
  9. Orchestration probably marks the most innovative romantic trend. Composers worked toward a more integrated presentation of melody that involved many instruments from several sections. The dual choirs of strings and winds melt into cross sectional blends of romantic timbral contrast. Composers continue to expand the orchestra. The quest to combine instrumental and vocal forces continues in the hands of Mahler, Wagner, and others.
  10. The character of the movements also changed. Some scherzos are slow, others are quick. Some finales are somber and nolonger dance oriented: Brahms' Sym. No. 4 is a passacaglia/chaconne, several of Mahler's finales are serious and feature the voice (Primeval Light).
  11. Consider the trends born in the classic era that expand in the romantic:

Romantic traits:

  1. The concept of patronage, where the composer is an employee of the church or court, is replaced by entrepreneurial endeavors, commissions, concert series, publications, etc. - Haydn's life is an example of this transition.
  2. The concept of functional music is replaced by art for art's sake - without need of explanation. The vision of the composer is paramount - not subservient to the whims of the church, nobility, or public. The artist begins to see his or her self as nobility (or even greater) because of their gift and talent. Beethoven said, "I look around me and I'm better than every man I see." He even paid for a dining bill by writing a short composition on the wall, telling the owner, "here, this will more than pay for the bill" (my paraphrase). Compare this mentality with composers working during the council of Trent (Gesualdo and Palestrina), Bach pleading for more money from the city council and complaining about his inept musicians, and, Mozart suffering from his own inability to work within the church/court system. Haydn was a self made millionaire in today's terms by the time he died. Beethoven sponsored his own first concert. It lasted over 4 hours and included, among other works, his first symphony and his first piano concerto.
  3. What was an international style, from the baroque through the classic period, becomes an individual style with often nationalistic overtones. Composer's strive to be innovative and unique. They want to separate their works from the stereotypes around them. The romantic period marks the birth of the individual.
  4. Geopolitical reasons also factor into this equation. The symphonic form was seen by many as an elitist product whose target market was those of privilege - this is especially so of the minuet. The American and French revolutions sparked an international quest for freedom and self determinism. The rise of the common man. Forms associated with bureaucracy of the past: church, state, and nobility in particular, were less popular. Consider how it influenced the transition in opera towards librettos that related more to the common people. Also consider how the industrial revolution begins to affect the public: mass migrations to the cities, long difficult work days, and the poverty associated with this global change.

Only 15 or so composers from this lists on pp. 98-99 continue to appear on modern concert programs. From that list, maybe 50-60 works enjoy continued popularity (Stedman's list is a bit conservative in this area).

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Franz Schubert (1797 - 1828; 1812)

Schubert lived to the age of 31 and still managed to write over 900 works, including 9 symphonies. His life was quite secluded and most of his works, especially the larger ones, were not performed until after his death. He studied with Antonio Salieri at the Viennese Imperial court (Salieri also taught Mozart, Beethoven, and Liszt). His accomplishments include works for voice (several operas, Lied, and Song Cycles), string quartet, and piano. He lived a very meager and humble life. Financial troubles caused him to sell his possessions several times, including his piano. He was also a guitarist and several of his works were first conceived on guitar then transferred to piano - often because he had no piano at the time. He dedicated his life to his music with the exception of a failed school teaching stint (his father was a school master). There has been a bit of speculation regarding his alternative life style. His quest for knowledge was immense and he even began counterpoint lessons a month before he died from syphilis. A friend of his remarked that "everything he touched turned to song" (Yudkin, p.326). His first 6 symphonies point more to Haydn and Mozart than Beethoven. His commonalties with Haydn and Mozart include:

His more original aspects include:

His last two symphonies show his maturing style:

Symphony No.1

Symphony No.2

Symphony No.3

Symphony No.4

Symphony No.5

Symphony No.6 (Rossini Style)

Symphony No.9 (The Great C Major)

Study Examples

Schubert: Symphony No.8, b minor (Unfinished) See footnote for analysis and score (Stedman, p.105)

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847; 1836)

Mendelssohn was the son of banker and a member of affluent society. He was also Jewish and therefore persecuted because of this by Wagner (posthumously) and others. His family did everything possible to conform - even converting at an early point to Christianity (Felix was 7). His compositions aside, he was equally innovative as an early conductor (Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and later the Berlin Opera) and orchestrator, and a champion of prior composers. He premiered Schubert's Great C Major symphony when it was discovered and also premiered Schumann's symphony No.1. His revival, at age 20, of JS Bach's St. Matthew's Passion is the prime example. Its performance was a huge success and led to a resurgence of JS Bach's works. It marks the main point in music history when musicians quit rejecting the past as antiquated and obsolete, but instead revived it with reverence and appreciation. Mendelssohn remarked, "of course - Bach's music needs to be re-orchestrated... To think that it should be a Jew and an actor (Mendelssohn's friend) who give back to the people the greatest of all Christian works." (Yudkin, p.249) His creative output includes numerous piano works (Songs Without Words) and several string quartets and quintets. He is best known for his orchestral works.

Mendelssohn wrote 5 symphonic works and some incidental music. One of the symphonic works, No. 2 (Lobgesang), combines symphonic form with a cantata. The rest are four movement forms. His style extends the classical style in many ways:

Symphony No.1 (1824 - age 15)

Symphony No. 2 (Lobgesang)

Symphony No. 3 (Scottish)

Symphony No. 5 (Lobgesang)

Study Examples

Symphony No. 4 in A major (Italian)

A Midsummer Night's Dream

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Robert Schumann (1810-1856; 1833)

Schumann suffered from mental illness throughout much of his life, but it intensified drastically in his latter years ("not schizophrenia but a manic-depressive psychosis" - Longyear, p.98). His psychosis and creative output seem to coincide during his moderately manic moments (see below, from Yudkin, p.260). He aspired to become a concertizing pianist but severely damaged his ring finger with a device he invented in 1832 to train his fingers for independence. With his playing career over, he focused on composition and his wife, pianist extraordinaire Clara Schumann, performed many of his (and her own) works. Her notoriety as a performer often clouded his own success and visibility. Clara was invited to perform at party in Moscow, after the performance the diplomat introduced him to the others as Mr. Clara Schumann. The relationship between Clara and Johannes Brahms grew to a scandalous point after Robert's illness worsened and he was institutionalized. He died of self-starvation two years later in 1856. His importance as a composer, music critic, historian, and music journal editor cannot be overestimated. He revered Bach's Well Tempered Clavier, playing through it regularly and working diligently with counterpoint - even writing fugues based on B-A-C-H. He occasionally used the letters of his name, and other words to derive key relationships and motives. Much of his romantic influence was literary - his father owned a bookstore and he became a voracious reader. It is through Schumann that the literary concept of romanticism begins in music. His wrote many character works for solo piano. Carnival presents a masked ball procession of short character pieces that represent his own dual personalities of Florestan and Eusebius, among other characters (Bach, Clara, Paganini, etc.). His song cycle Dichterliebe, along with those Schubert, and Wolf, form the romantic period bench marks in this genre.

Schumann's madness and genius (from Jeremy Yudkin's Understanding Music, p.260. 2nd. Ed.

 

Schumann's symphonic style bridges aspects of the Viennese tradition with romantic trends. He works to expand forms and increases the role of the brass section by often using 4 horns, 2 trumpets, and 3 trombones. His brass focus gives his works a heavy, dense sound at times. His use of counterpoint relies on countermelodies more than imitation, unlike Mendelssohn. Schumann conveys romanticism through chromaticism (lyricism), melodic dissonance, and tonal experimentation. He, like Mendelssohn often features appoggiaturas and suspensions in slow movements. His formal innovations are the most important:

Symphony No. 2

Symphony No. 3

Symphony No. 4

Symphony No. 1 in Bb major, Op.38 (Spring - subtitles later removed by Schumann)

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Program Music

Program music describes works where composers depict concrete elements of a story, image, or element in nature. In the furthest sense, every musical element, be it form, rhythm, meter, orchestral color/timbre, dynamics, etc., is fashioned from the program. Similar instances occur in plainsong, in 16th century Masses and motets, English virginal music, 16th century madrigals, French harpsichord music of the 17th century, and 17th and 18th century operas, oratorios, and cantatas. Rarely are form and themes derived from extramusical ideas in these early works. A few exceptions would include the bird and battle chansons of Parisian chanson composer Janequin, some 14th century Italian caccias, and the Biblical sonatas of Kuhnau.

Beethoven said that his Pastoral Symphony was "an expression of emotion rather than tone-painting" even though the fourth movement (The Storm) is programmatic. Berlioz provided a written program for his Symphonie Fantastique that confirms his intentions that the symphony could be an instrument of drama. The prevailing romantic concept placed music as the highest of all art forms because it could express what words could not, and also because it could not be captured in solid form like paintings, sculpture, and poetry. Mendelssohn kept his programmatic ideas subservient to classical forms in his dramatic overtures (incidental play music). Liszt leaned to the other extreme by designing extremely programmatic works and supplying them with detailed programs to ensure the correct interpretation. Liszt defined the "Tone-poet" as someone who "reproduces his impression and the adventures of his soul in order to communicate them, while the mere musician manipulates, groups and connects the tones according to certain established rules, and, thus playfully conquering difficulties, attains at best to novel, bold, unusual and complex combinations" (from Liszt's essay on Berlioz and his Harold Symphony (1855) as found in Oliver Strunk's Source Readings in Music History).

Strauss' symphonic poems Ein Heldenleben (1898) and Symphonia Domestica (1903) mark the high point of the symphonic program. The later portrays the conjugal love and one can even hear sheep bleating in his Don Quixote. The concept that all music is by its nature an expression of some type of program has been repeatedly attacked and defended. Hanslick's position that any judgement about the value of the program must ultimately be a judgement of the music itself defines the most commonly accepted view. (The foregoing was synthesized from several sources including New Grove, the New College Encyclopedia of Music, and Oliver Strunk's Source Readings in Music History).

The popular rise of program music led to a polarization between those for it and against it. Programmatic musical devices run the gamut from the very explicit, per Strauss, to the very oblique, Beethoven and Mendelssohn. As one can imagine, with regards to Liszt's statement, programmatic composers work to shed themselves of any formal, tonal, and traditional trappings of the past. Connecting their work to prior norms and conventions would be an insult.

 

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869; 1836)

From C.P.E. Bach and Stamitz until Berlioz marks a period of mostly German-Viennese symphonic tradition. Berlioz is really the first French composer to rise above that. His style is informed by it, especially by Beethoven's works (9th symphony), but he remained distinctly original - that may be why his music was misunderstood for so long (most theorists hail from the German tradition - how many French theorists can you name besides Rameau? German/Austrian concepts have dominated theory, especially counterpoint, for much of history). Berlioz struggled financially for most of his life. Most of his musical output is related in some way to financial necessity. He made most of his money not as a composer, but as a conductor, and also by arranging Weber's and Gluck's operas for performance in Paris. His monumental Treatise on Orchestration pioneered the science of orchestration and is still required reading. His critical writings on music provide a wealth of information and detail about his contemporaries and 19th century musical style in general.

Berlioz is a supreme orchestrator. He wrote works in virtually every medium that could include orchestra: symphony, concerto, opera, oratorio, incidental music, dramatic overtures, and opera overtures. Simply put, Berlioz transforms the nature of the symphony. He is the first to forge the programmatic path in a flaming manner. He is the most significant innovator since Beethoven and Longyear calls him "the true founder of the modern orchestra" (Longyear, 138). He devises a cyclic unifying device, the idée fixe, which permeates (haunts) each movement by changing rhythm, tempo, and/or harmony. Both Harold in Italy (1834 - a hybrid symphony/concerto written for Paganini's curiosity of the viola) and Symphonie Fantastique (1830) employ the idée fixe. His dramatic symphony, Romeo and Juliet and the "Band" symphony do not. He expands the orchestra. He divides the melody between different instruments (at times difficult to perform but very colorful). His operas, like Le Troyens, become the flagship models for French Grand Opera. He calls his Damnation of Faust (1846) a "dramatic legend." With its programmatic nature and combination of vocal soloists, chorus, and orchestra, it anticipates elements of Wagner's music drama - except it is unstaged. Berlioz's dedication to opera marks his departure from the symphony. His efforts to raise the symphony to the programmatic level rest most upon his dramatic legend (Faust - combines voice and orch.), Symphonie Fantastique, and dramatic symphony (Romeo and Juliet). In the strictest sense, only the Symphonie Fantastique qualifies as a symphony - the others are hybrid structures involving voice (Faust, Romeo and Juliet) or the concerto principle (Harold).

Berlioz studied orchestration at the Paris conservatoire. His superb handling of the orchestral forces raises timbre and color to a formal device (often by frequent revisions)- this is his main contribution along with the cyclic idée fixe. Sixteen different scoring combination occur within the 71 measure introduction of the Symphonie Fantastique He was regularly ridiculed by the press for his huge, over-the-top, orchestral forces but this actually happens rarely. The whole myth has been quite overblown for too long now - please don't perpetuate it. He required large forces but used them very judicially. He knew it took a large number of string players to get a true pianissimo. His large brass sections were often used in small colorful groups. He cross sectional groupings often required extra winds for color balance. He is the first composer to understand and fully utilize the available advances from the industrial revolution in instrument design. He also worked to orchestrate ambient effects (echoes off stage, distant thunder, etc.) by moving musicians or changing textures. His phrases are generally uneven (long with numerous suspensions) and often imbued with a dance derived rhythm. He often reharmonized and reorchestrated returning melodies. Contrapuntal elements were also at his command: canons, imitation, but mainly combining melodies (Schumann or Beethoven's 9th: double fugue variation in the finale) in codas or ending sections. His transitions become as much a focal point as his themes. His harmonies are not often complex, some parallel chords (Mendelssohn) occur. More striking is his use of unrelated chords (non-directional) in succession or his free use of diminished 7th chords (often for modulation). Most of his forms are loosely traditional. Rhythm, orchestration, and tempo become structural unifiers for Berlioz. His dynamics swing wildly at times. He (along with Chopin to some degree) weakens the structural aspects of functional tonality since narrative and illustrative aspects take precedence over traditional harmonic, rhythmic, and structural formulas (Longyear, 135-142). Each of his works are unique, often tough to classify, and this makes him hard to categorize. One thing is certain, he influenced every subsequent composer.

Study Example

Symphonie Fantastique, Op.14a (see footnote p. 126 for score and extra commentary).

 

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Franz Liszt (1811-1886; 1848)

Franz Liszt becomes music's first Liberace-type showman. He was an international phenomenon and played the role perfectly. His virtuosic shows left women passed out in the audience. He himself would feign exhaustion only to regain composure in the nick of time and continue. Ladies adorned him with numerous undergarments and room keys. He would begin the show by marching on stage in his Cossack warrior outfit, complete with sword. He would remove his gloves and sword, then cape, and then begin to play. His romantic liaisons were numerous. Paganini did similar antics, including filing his strings so that they would break at a pinnacle moment - obliging him to leap to another string and continue in death defying fashion. But Paganini, suffering form the same disfiguring disease as Abraham Lincoln, was not nearly as handsome a man as Liszt.

Liszt, like many other romantic composers, was deeply influenced by Berlioz. He knew after hearing the Symphonie Fantastique that his path would be programmatic. Liszt's music derives from a wealth of writings, paintings, and other influences. His main innovation lies in form. He largely abandons the four movement symphony and typical sonata structure in his symphonic poems and in his Dante program symphony. Faust uses altered sonata forms and an aria with a later appended chorus. He borrows Berlioz's concept of cyclical unity (idée fix) and begins using one or two principal motives or themes to organize his works. His concept of Thematic Transformation usually keeps the pitches intact while changing meter, rhythm, and harmony to fit the mood or moment. His symphonic poems are generally one movement and loosely organized. The main theme spins out motives for further development/continuation (sequence/repetition) in a rhapsodic style (unfolding). His chromaticism further weakens tonality and his progressions are untraditional. He, like Berlioz, uses tempo, dynamic, metrical, and orchestral devices structurally. He uses Berlioz's expanded orchestral pallet and extends it to regularly include 3 trumpets. His orchestration, like that of Berlioz, is designed to effect, depict, or describe his program. His programs describe the source and philosophy of his inspiration without assigning them to particular orchestral effects. The listener derives the connections. Strauss will assign these quite specifically. His two symphonies, keep in mind his several symphonic poems, are Faust (1854, rev.1861 and 1880) and Dante (1856).

Study Example

The Damnation of Faust:(1854, rev.1861 and 1880)

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Richard Wagner (1813-1883; 1848)

The Tristan chord opens the work Tristan und Isolde. The chord caused quite a roar among early 20th century theorists as they presented several competing theories to explain it. The most logical arguments labels it as 1) a French augmented sixth chord with an appoggiatura (f-b-d#'-g#' with the g# resolving to a); and, 2) a half-diminished seventh chord (which occurs in reduced position (F-Ab-Cb-Eb). The latter looks fine on paper but fails to explain the effect of the quartal spacing (F-B-Eb-Ab) which has much to do with how it sounds; and, no theory to date fully explains how it functions the way it does (also consider its appearance in Parsifal). It played a significant role in the chromatic harmony practices of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Eitherway, the chord has the reputation of "causing a crisis in Romantic harmony .... and seems to have been crucial to the limitation of the application of functional theory to harmonic analysis" (New Grove XIX, 154).

Study Examples

Prelude and Liebestod (conclusion) from the music drama Tristan und Isolde.

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The Symphonic Poem
(Paraphrased from the entry Symphonic Poem in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.)

The symphonic poem lasted roughly from 1840 -1920s. Its programmatic design, a very popular manifestation during the late romantic period, fell from favor with the rise of absolute forms per expressionism. The goal was to represent literature, nature, emotion, or art in musical terms. These issues again point to the depth of the absolute - programmatic music debate. Programmaticism in music extends back to Kuhnau's musical renderings of biblical texts, but the main manifestation occurs with Beethoven's Pastoral symphony (no. 6) and Berlioz's symphonie fantastique. These works provide the basic concepts used by virtually every subsequent programmatic composer. Programmatic content also appears in Beethoven's overtures to Egmont and Fidelio and in Mendelssohn's overture to Shakespear's A Midsummer Night's Dream. The primary pioneer of symphonic poems is Liszt. Works such as Hamet and Mazeppa elevate the medium to new heights aesthetically and formally. It was in his works that the one movement design and use of thematic transformation became staples of the genre. The poetic design and use of thematic transformation also permeate his Faust and Dante symphonies. Liszt, unlike others working in the genre, chose to convey poetic content in a general way, not by creating explicit narratives - even though his themes generally convey the broad ideas of the program in an obvious manner. Liszt emplyed a loose eposodic (rhapsodic) design with thematic sections moving unpredictably at times according to the narrative. Themes and motives are mutated in various ways to derive the desired emotional affect. In the end, maintaining formal intregity over such broad spans of time is difficult. The forms of the works work from the program but musical strategies such as statement, contrast, and restatement appear in varying degrees. Certain elements: sign motives, ascending chromaticism, brass themes, and pauses, seem to appear in each work and is continued by Wagner, Strauss, and others. The brass theme concept reaches back to Beethoven's ninth symphony and Berlioz's King Lear.

The symphonic poem becomes a popular medium for nationalistic devices as rhythms and folk melodies appear in the works of Smetana, Dvorak, Musorgsky, and others. Smetana's The Moldau (1872-9) traces the local river of the composer's youth from its inception as two streams to its fading into the distance. Many points of the journey manifest musically, the streams pervasive 1/16th notes, the slower moving but larger flowing river, and so forth. The Moldau is one of six works in the symphonic poem cycle Ma vlast (my country). In so doing, Smetana expands the concept of one movement into a cycle of six works that is largely unified by two thematic ideas - one is an old Czech hymn. Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Musorgsky convey Russia elements thorugh the medium. Musorgsky's St. John's Night on the Bare Mountain (1867) takes the listener on a journey through mythology and the Black Mass. French traditions manifest first in the works of Berlioz, but not in true symphonic poem form. Though Franck had actually written a symphonic poem prior to Liszt, Debussy's Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1892-4) is probably the best known of the genre. The works of Liszt and Strauss mark the beginning and culmnation of the genre overall, and for Germany. Strauss' works rise the bar for orchestral echnique and virtuosity. He extends the concept of symphonic poem both in length and realism. His topics run the gamut from serious (settings of Nietzsche's poetry) to light hearted (popular narravites like Don Juan). his forms use transforming themes in combination with various traditional concepts: vague sonata form, theme and variations (Don Quixote), rondo, etc. His themes were often simple and descriptive with expressive chromaticism and powerful orchestration. Don Quixote employs theme transformation and detailed expression (Sheep Baaing per the brass, etc.). These moments point to an acute musical wit and sense of humor.

The fall of the symphonic poem in the 20th century marks the rejection of programmatic trends in general. The difficuties of applying literary form to musical design held many unsolvable questions - music's natural need for repetition has no literary counterpart and sonata form would make a strange narrative. The best combinations can be found in the contrasting masculine and feminine themes in Liszt's Hamlet, the variation design of Strauss' Don Quixote and Dukas' The Sorcerer's Apprentice. However, the use of the term Tone Poem in lieu of Symphonic Poem by Strauss denotes just how far the medium had departed from symphonic designs.

Study Examples

Liszt
(Symphonic Poems)

Hamlet (Symphonic Poem - 1858; rev. 1876)

Mazeppa (Symphonic Poem - 1851)

 

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Berich Smetana (1824-1884; 1854)
The Moldau
(Czech Nationalism - Symphonic Poem)

Dvorak and Smetana hail from Bohemia, an independent kingdom later annexed by Austria and now part of Czechoslovakia. Smetana's most famous work is his opera The Bartered Bride. He, like Dvorak, imbues his works with nationalistic rhythms and themes. The opera is based on Bohemian folklore while his symphonic poem, The Moldau, describes the flow of that river across the Bohemian countryside. The poem's descriptive program conveys nature, beauty, and national pride. This work one of six works in Smetana's nationalistic symphonic poem cycle.

Study Example
The Moldau
(Symphonic Poem)

The Moldau uses a large orchestra in a very expressive way. The textures ebb and flow like the river. The program starts with two small streams, growing and accelerating and flowing down the countryside under the moonlight, over rapids, past a castle, and then out of sight. Slurring and step-wise motion help convey the water's actions.

Form is a free design (Fantasia) of alternating themes reflecting the program (river). The recall of the main theme at the end provides a larger scale sense of return. See analytical supplement in anthology.

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Modest Musorgsky (1839-1881; 1860)
Russian Nationalism
Night on Bald Mountain (1867)
(Russian Nationalism - Symphonic Poem)

Musorgsky belonged to the group known as the Russian five or the "Mighty Handful." Their compositions define the Russian manifestation of symphonic nationalism. Musorgsky symphonic poem Night on Bald Mountain (1867) was originally intended to as music to Mengden's play The Witch. It was later turned into a symphonic poem, and later used in the third act of the opera Mlada (1872). At his death it was also found as part of the unfinished opera Sorochintsi Fair (1875). The verbal description attached to the score reads:

"subterranean sounds of unearthly voices. Appearance of the spirits of Chernobog.
Chernobog's glorification and the Black Mass.
The Revels. At the height of the orgies is heard from afar the bell of a little church,
which cause the spirits to disperse. Dawn."

Musorgsky's style is raw and primal. Many of his works were reorchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov after his death. Korsakov described his style as "so talented, original, full of so much that was new and vital" but his technique was clumsy, "absurd, disconnected harmony, ugly part-writing, sometimes strikingly illogical modulation, sometimes a depressing lack of it, unsuccessful scoring of the orchestral things..." He went on to explain his intervention, "publication without some setting in order by a skilled hand would have had no sense, except a biographical - historical one...what was needed at the moment was an edition for performance, for practical artistic aims, for familiarization with his enormous talent, not for the study of his personality and artistic transgressions...an archaeological edition could be produced (at any time if necessary)."

Musorgsky uses an extened sonata form complete with primary, secondary, and closing theme groups. The development presents melodic fragments reiterated at different (usually higher) pitch levels. The coda is sectional and the final part, an intermezzo by Musorgsky, was added later by Rimsky-Korsakov. See analytical supplement in anthology

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Claude Debussy (1862-1918; 1890)
French Impressionism
Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894)
(Symphonic Poem)

The work protray's a mythological figure, half-man, half-goat, who is half asleep in the hot sun. His mind drifts to sexual fantasies and his feelings are expressed through his playing of the panpipes. The notions of general suggestion, per Liszt and Wagner, manifest in this work and in the nature of impressionism in general. Debussy employs an ABA design that concludes with a dream-like coda. See analytical supplement in anthology

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Richard Strauss (1864 -1949; 1911)

Strauss is a progressive figure in music history. He coined the Tone Poem for orchestra, wrote operas, programmatic symphonies, and other significant works. His mature style solidified by 1890 and changed little after that date. His and Mahler's symphonies form the final important orchestral works of the romantic period. His style remained consistent even though his output continued well into the 20th century.

His Tone Poems are his most important symphonic contribution - that's why well look at Don Quixote instead of his Domestic Symphony.

Study Examples

Don Quixote

 

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Absolute Music

The concept of Absolute music materialized in the face of Programme music. It was actually the 'default' state until an alternative state arose. Neither extreme is actually possible: Programmatic music needs structure - in the words of Wagner, "if there were no form, there would certainly be no works of art"- and - Absolute music cannot be devoid of the human experience. The aesthetic debate per the absolutists looks to elevate instrumental music beyond the meaning of mere words (emphasis Hanslick) to arrive at a greater consciousness only possible in instrumental terms. Narrative based forms, be they instrumentally programmatic (Liszt or Berlioz), or vocally programmatic (operas, cantatas, oratorio, hybrid forms, Lieder, etc.) are considered inferior since the must rely on extramusical associations to be fully understood. Hanslick reasons that this is why such narrative based forms appeal to the lower classes.

This Absolutist's view was perpetuated by poets such as Kant, Nietzche, and F. Hand, and musicians including Hanslick, Ambros, Busoni, and others. The squabbling did not decrease vocal output, and composers like Weber, Schubert, and Strauss never regarded their vocal works as inferior. Writers like E.T.A. Hoffman were torn between the two extremes. The polemics intensified into serious quarrels. The question of whether music could express anything more than the music itself even spurred Stravinsky into the debate. Wagner points out that if music, as absolutists claim, can leap beyond words to express emotions in the clearest possible manner, a manner more specific than words, then why is its reception often a guessing game? Schumann said "music needs no program;" it is always "self-evident and explicit"... "He (Roth) probably thinks I get a hold of a screaming child and try to find the corresponding notes. Its the other way round" (Blüme, 186-7). Wagner maintains that music can only express universal emotions - not specific ones. The struggle revolves around composers wishing to clearly communicate and performers/audiences wishing to clearly perceive the composer's intentions. This clearly got out of hand with the programs Wagner devised for selected Beethoven works, and with Kretschmar's three volumes of concert guides. Wagner hailed Programme music as the "new form" and decried that any association that music achieves with literature or art would never dethrone it as the ultimate art form.

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897; 1865)

Liszt and Wagner developed a strong relationship. Wagner eventually married his illegitimate daughter (Cosima Von Bulow). The so called "Tristan chord (f-b-d#-g#)" might have originated with Liszt. At a much later concert Wagner turned to Liszt and said "papa, they're playing our chord." Liszt, along with Berlioz, greatly influenced Wagner. Liszt produced Lohengren for him in 1850 in Weimar. In 1854 the first cycle of the Ring was completed. Wagner's writings on music point to a new form - The Music Drama (Gesamtkunstwerke). This new form demands that every single component: music, dance, drama, and staging, be combined for maximum dramatic effect. No single element is more important the others. Amid this Wagnerian extension of ideas that began with Berlioz (Le Troyens) and Liszt, Brahms appears on the scene- the quintessential absolutist - the same man who while leaving a party loudly announced, "If there's anyone here I have not offended, I am truly sorry!"

Brahms deplored programmatic trends and yet achieved a very personal, romantic expression through his music. Brahms quickly became the figurehead, willing or not, for those in favor of absolute music. This places him in direct opposition to Wagner. Brahm's symphonies reach the pinnacle of romantic, yet absolute, expression. He presents the truest extension of Beethoven's classical legacy, but in romantic terms. He style traits are:

Symphony No.2 (1877) in D major.

Symphony No.3 (1883) in F major.

Symphony No.4 (1885) in e minor.

Study Examples

Symphony No.1 (1876) in c minor.

 

Fugal writing does subside over the period (Stedman's manner of including this discussion of fugue usage or lack there of, reads awkwardly - like he forgot to say this somewhere else - or like he's apologizing for Brahm's infrequency of fugal writing). Brahms does focus on contrary motion, juxtaposing themes in homophony context. Lyric melody does require this. But, Berlioz and Liszt both use fugal writing in their works (S.F. and Faust) though like Beethoven, it forms a small amount of the overall output.

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893; 1866)

Tchaikovsky worte 6 symphonies. His style is deeply rooted in the European tradition unlike his compatriots, the Russian five or the "Mighty Handful" (Musorgsky's symphonic poem Night on Bald Mountain (1867), etc.). Though he wrote in the European tradition he was extremely nationalistic. He included many Russian elements in his works, namely, dance rhythms and folk melodies. Like other great romanticists, he is a superb lyric melodist and a masterful orchestrator. His melodies take several forms: 1) folk, 2) military march style, 3) waltz-like, and 4) lyrical. Some melodies combines several traits at once. He favors appoggiaturas much more than linear chromaticism - which does occur occasionally. His phrase structures are sound and often overlap. He extends material through repetition and sequence, instead of immediately developing it like Brahms. His developments suffer though he had an adept sense of counterpoint, not in parallel to Brahms (but who is?), but in the normal romantic sense of combining melodies, using counter melodies, and so forth, like Brahms, Schumann, Berlioz, and Liszt. There is little imitation except for the 5th symphony's fugato (dev. of mvmt. I). He does use canonic and antiphonal activity. He does employ cyclic devices at times, especially the motto motive in Nos. 4 and 5. He borrows Berlioz's idée fix idea for long programmatic symphony, with extended program, based on Bryon's poem Manfred. His symphonic form is traditional in order and character of movement. Tonal and harmonic schemes are more conservative than Brahms, Liszt, Strauss, and Mahler. His most significant facet, along with melody and rhythm, is orchestration. He maintains several practices:

Tchaikovsky poses a mix of programmatic (mostly smaller forms: tone poems, overtures, etc. with subtitles) and abstract works. He is mainly revered for his orchestral scoring and melodic design. He extends the style of Schubert. His march-like first themes and lyrical second themes, dance style scherzo-waltzes, folk themes, and use of rhythm as a unifying device all more than substitute for his lack of focus on developmental counterpoint/motivic designs. Though his style was European based, many Russian elements pepper his works.

Symphony No.1

Symphony No.2 (Little Russian moniker from use of Ukrainian (called little Russia) folk tunes).

Symphony No.3

Symphony No.5

Symphony No.6 (Pathetique)

 

Study Examples

Symphony No.4 (1877)

 

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Anton Bruckner (1824-1896; 1866)

 

Study Examples

Symphony No.4 (1873; rev. 1889)

 

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Chapter 5
The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904; 1873)

Study Examples

Symphony No.7 (1885)

 

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Chapter 5
French Orchestral Music of the Nineteenth Century

French composers wrote few symphonies during the romantic era. The symphony had an aristocratic attachment that the French, just fresh from the revolution, wished to avoid. The connection was so strong that it was even banned for a brief period of time just after the war. Military music was the rage in France per the concert band. This influence spread to America through New Orleans. Furthermore, opera was the main musical form in France, especially French Grand Opera like Berlioz's Le Troyens. Though a few French composers wrote symphonies prior to 1850, it was the ones after that date, namely Bizet, Gounod, Saint-Saens, and Franck that are the most interesting - even though their combined output only totals 7 symphonies. Franck's Symphony in d minor, Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique, and Saint-Seans' Symphony No. 3 form the main contributions to modern concert programs. The 58 year gap between the Symphonie Fantastique and Franck's Symphony in d minor shows either France's distaste for the form or the popularity of French opera.


The Nineteenth-Century Symphony
Cesar Franck (1822 -1890; 1856)

Study Examples

Symphony No.1 (his only symphony - 1888)

Chapter 5
Gustav Mahler
(1860-1911; 1885)

Strauss' and Mahler's works mark the end of romantic symphonic music. They were long time friends and colleagues yet their output had some fundamental differences and similarities. Struass summarizes programmatic trends while Mahler worked, overall, to extend the Viennese symphonic tradition per Beethoven, Schubert, and Brahms. Both were expansionists. Strauss because of his programs, and Mahler because of the Beethoven/Brahms tradition. Mahler even reverted to classicism in his middle period. His style vacillated between programmatic, folk, classical, and romantic. In many ways Mahler's use of enormous orchestral forces to, at times, present simple folk themes denotes his vacillation between style and content. His output divides into four periods:

His influences include the folk song tradition, like Schubert. He often reverts to the Landler form for the scherzo, as did Bruckner. His folk song interests point to his inclusion of the voice. His Song of the Earth was actually a song cycle converted to symphonic proportions. His early symphonies point to the programmatic and musical influences of Liszt, Berlioz, and Wagner. Extremely detailed programs accompany these works. His disenchantment with programmaticism coincides with popular trends of the time. His overall style, all periods together, reflect an emphasis on development, counterpoint, and motivic/cyclic unity - including cyclical themes.

He expands the normal movements of the symphony and also adds extra movements. Three of his nine completed symphonies had five movements, and one had six. His expanded orchestra, almost as if he and Strauss were competing, can be seen on pages 224-225. Only three works had as few as four horns, all the rest had expanded brass (6-10 hrns.). Four or five oboes are common. Symphony No.5 has 5 piccolos. Numerous auxiliary percussion are needed, along with mandolin (folk element) in symphonies nos. 7 and 8.

His textures began as typical 19th century homophony designs but evolved into increasingly complex contrapuntal structures. Fugal sections appear in the most all of the later symphonies (no. 4 forward). The counterpoint, thus linear style of his and Strauss' works foreshadow the linear/contrapuntal approaches (non-homophonic) to follow in the 20th century. His melodies strike a balance between Viennese and folk designs. Viennese designs per Schubert and Brahms and folk idioms from German, Hungarian, and Slavonic cultures. The folk elements include nature motives (remember Beethoven's Pastoral bird calls?). His marches have military significance and the Viennese melodies often feature chromaticism (Mozart, et al.). The descending fourth seems to appear frequently.

The harmonic designs become perplexing because of the counterpoint - linear writing reduces vertical possibilities. The primordial triad appears. Diatonic and chromatic progressions are less frequent than with Strauss or Brahms. Earlier works are more predictable and some later works do have large areas with traditional progressions. Like Brahms, there are several plagal cadences. His areas of release often feature the tonic triad. Cadences can be linear step-wise progressions. These elements begin to anticipate the collapse of functional harmony.

Symphonic Compositions:
His first symphony (Titan 1888) had a program that Mahler later retracted (Remember Schumann?). He later rewrote another program but had removed it by 1900. It is comprised of five moments forming two large parts and includes some of his own songs (Lieder) as themes. He later replaced the second movement with a scherzo and trio. He uses folk tunes throughout the movements and often in a humorous fashion. The third movement, based on a minor version of Frére Jacque was controversial until recent times. Large orchestra: seven horns, 4 each of flutes, ob., clr., and tpt.

The second symphony first movement is adapted from an earlier funeral march. An elaborate, quasi-autobiographical program accompanies the work. A Landler forms the second and third movements. The latter's rhythm has pervasive, almost galant style rush of 1/16th notes - it derives from Mahler's song Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredight. The fourth movement is his infamous Urlicht (primeval light) for alto soloist and orchestra. The text is from a group of German poems collected from 1537-1809 called Des Knaben Wunderhorn - a work that had a profound influence on Mahler poetically and programmatically. The finale employs huge forces including vocal soloists and choir, and instruments off stage for effect.

Mahler's Hymn to Nature is his third symphony and presents a very detailed program that experienced 8 different revisions. The final version extracts the seventh movement which became the fourth movement of symphony no.4. The first movement is the longest movement by Mahler and has a double exposition and march style development. The second movement minuet has a series of contrasting meters. A scherzo follows and the fourth movement is another alto solo using one of his Leider melodies. The finale, an Adagio, features features women's choir, alto solo, and children's choir.

His fourth symphony pulls back the size of the orchestra and length of developmental forms. The first movement's bird calls are followed by another Landler-esque scherzo-trio second movement. A variation form with two themes forms the third movement - his variation style works from each successive variation rather than the from the main theme. The finale features solo soprano with orchestra - remember it was originally the finale of symphony no.3.

His next three symphonies mark a change of style back to neoclassicism per Beethoven, Brahms, and Schubert. With No.5 his forms are traditional yet his orchestration is like Strauss'. The first movement is very Beethovenesque complete with exposition repeats, motivic development, and extended coda. An Andante follows (though a scherzo was originally written as mvmt 2) with chromatic expression that blurs modality. The scherzo's theme comes from the first movement (cyclical) and is in traditional 5 part form S-T-S-T-S-coda. The trio alternates meters (Brahms). The finale recalls themes from the prior movements. This symphony best presents his polyphonic prowess. His orchestration includes a hammer that marks the strikes of fate at three pinnacle points int he finale. A program describes his intentions.

The seventh and eighth symphonies borrowed ideas, textures, and orchestrations from prior works - a point which caused some ridicule by later scholars. His use of progressive tonality begins to manifest (beginning in one key and ending in another - often minor to major a.k.a. "darkness to light" as in Beethoven or even Bach). His progressive style returns with linear generation and open 5ths. Other verticalities recall Wagner. Mandolin and guitar occur in the fourth movement. Symphony no.8 is more programmatic with a finale based on Goethe's Faust. The large forces include boys choir, mixed choir, vocal soloists, and a huge orchestra. This works expands on Beethoven's 9th symphony in many ways - including extensive counterpoint. The ninth symphony reorders the character of the movements: Andante (I), Landler (II), Allegro assai (III), and Adagio (IV). Some themes come from prior works and the style has a classical edge to it - especially the smaller forces that resemble a Beethoven score. Some Wagnerian turns appear in the first movement.

Study Examples

Symphony No.5 (1902)

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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century

The modern era presents several reactions to prior 19th century traditions:

Elements of continuation of 19th century practices also occurred:

The most important new development was the birth of atonality or pantonality as Schoenberg preferred:

Other styles formed via experimentation:

As with some prior composers, many modern composers often present a blend of these styles and are not simply classified into one genre.

The Symphony in the Twentieth Century

The works of Strauss and Mahler mark the end of traditional romanticism. Sibelius works in the same vein but imbues his pieces with a more personal style. From 1900 to about 1930 lyrical neoromanticism coexisted with Impressionism. The Expressionists, Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg, push in a new direction - serialism. With their works, the German-Austria presence returns to modern music. The total output of the many different factions points to fewer symphonies in the traditional sense, but a number of new symphonic works related in scope and importance begin to appear (see list on p.241). Works during this time reflect the several divergent styles that existed. Only nine symphonies in the traditional sense appeared between 1909 and 1920. Prokofiev's Classical Symphony immediately popular, while works by Ives was rejected as too extreme. Elgar, Sibelius, and Vaughn-Williams continued the work in the earlier style per Mahler. Debussy and Ravel were the basis of French Impressionism. Stravinsky began as a Russian Impressionist but was soon working in the Expressionistic style as in the Rite of Spring. The use of programs continue to varying degrees with composers like Scriabin and Vaughn-Williams. The symphony began to revive after 1920 except in Italy, where opera remains the main art form.

The problem of terminology and definition arises as the word Symphony takes on new dimensions. Many 20th century composers write a symphony, some in modern terms, others in the traditional sense. Serial symphonies appear with Reigger and Sessions. Stravinsky, Penderecki, and others write symphonies that focus on texture and texture manipulations.

 

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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Jean Sibelius
(1865-1957; 1911)

Sibelius divides into four style periods:

His symphonies bear these transitions nicely and none are discarded as student works per se - the early ones are in the Russian symphonic tradition, and the rest correspond to their respective style period. His style is largely derived from Beethoven, Finnish nationalism, and romantic orchestration:

 

Study Example

Symphony No.4 (1911)

 

 

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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Ralph Vaughn Williams
(1872-1958; 1915)

Vaughn Williams saw the end of romanticism and the beginning and end of impressionism and expressionism. The English contribution to the symphony has been rather slim. The jest of one statement quibbed that one has to wonder what problem in England was to have a drought that lasted from Purcell to Walton. The influences of his time ran from neoclassicism to aleatory music. English music, especially church and folk music, played a significant part in his development along with J.S. Bach, Wagner, Ravel, and Holst. The folk song and Tudor church music influence manifests with his use of modality, declamatory (speech) rhythms, nonmetric effects, simple triads, and cross relations. These polyphonic elements permeate the works of 16th century English church musicians.

His melodies are often rhythmically complex with frequent 4ths and 5ths, not usually quick, and often pentatonic or modal. The way the beat is obscured, often to the point of no regard for bar lines and regular accents, recalls the ars subtilior style of the late medieval period. Folk melodies forms his other style of melodic design. Their regular pulse, diatonicism, and meter often stand in contrast to the subtilior type.

His harmonic designs reflect Debussy and Ravel through the use of planing chords and other parallelisms. He would stream chords over a contrapuntal texture. The progressions are often modal and triadic. Textures are often contrapuntal like the nonmetrical, nonimitative styles of Tudor church music. The polyphonic designs include fugue, passacaglia, imitation, fugato, ground bass, ostinato, countermelodies, and free counterpoint. His use of counterpoint remains tonal unlike the polyphony of the serialists. His rhythms are complex at times with regions of 2 against 3, conflicting meters, alternating meters, and so forth.The orchestral colors are bland at times and he often focuses on string scoring. His use of the saxophone is among the earliest in the repertoire. Frequent tutti presentations occur. His orchestral forces are similar to those of Sibelius, and therefore an extension of Beethoven. Approximately 60% of his movements are developmental (sonata forms and scherzos). He creates epilogues that serve as codas for the entire symphony, not just the finale. They bring back earlier material and often resolve earlier thematic issues. His style basically adds the English style to the evolution of the symphony.

His symphonies divide into three groups:

His first symphony is basically a choral symphony that sets the poetry of Walt Whitman. Three motives unify the entire work. A motto theme unifies the second symphony which features the bell of Big Ben. Planing chords begin the third symphony and 'chord streams' appear throughout the work. A wordless vocal solo begins the finale. The materials are largely pentatonic. The fourth symphony is the beginning of his nonprogrammatic phase. It is very dissonant with complex polyphonic textures. A motto motive unifies the work. The final chord has no third (ambiguity). The fifth symphony is dedicated to Sibelius and thus simpler, more tonal, and more accessible. The scherzo with two trios, one duple and the other triple, recall Schumann. The first movements ends on a major second (C-D) but the epilogue ends in D major. The seventh symphony is programmatic: based on Robert Scott's death while attempting to navigate the south pole and the movie account of the same. His expands the orchestra and even uses a wind machine, piano, organ, and solo soprano and women's chorus (both wordless). The program forces a more expressive versus absolute treatment, which may explain why it lacks his usual contrapuntal tendencies. The eighth symphony is much simpler, string focused, shorter, and nondevelopmental. It refers to earlier works thematically. The ninth is the most complex of all his works. It is tied together by a single motive - his infamous vacillation between a major and minor third with the same root. He uses all of his devices: Tudor style 16th century counterpoint, alternating meters in the scherzo's trio, abbreviation of returning sections, combinatorial forms (part form then sonata form as one movement), and his preoccupation with 1/2 step motives.

Study Example

Symphony No.6

Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Micheal Tippett
(1905-1998; 1951)

Tippett, like Sibelius and Williams, rejected atonal strategies and wrote in the late 19th century style. His symphony no.3 is programmatic and autobiographical. His early works spring from the styles of Beethoven, Sibelius, Hindemith, etc. A change occurs with the second symphony toward greater complexity: counterpoint, sectional forms, dissonance, and intricate rhythms. Thus his traditional four movement first symphony stands in contrast to his two movement third and single movement fourth symphonies. His third symphony has a Blues movement.

The third symphony is more abstract and points back to romanticism. It departs from Beethoven with its mosaic design: contrasting episodic sections instead of developmental motivic designs. His polychords, clusters, quartal, and other harmonic variants add a high level of harmonic complexity to his works. Tonality remained, but it was not functional. The symphony divides into two large units that further divides into two subsections each. An abstract first movement is followed by a vocal and expressive second. Tippett's main philosophy juxtaposes motion and motionlessness. Thus his first movement vacillates between the two states with each section adding more excitement. The second movement, Lento, is more traditional but also uses the mosaic principle. The third movement, Allegro molto, is sectional as drastically different themes are presented in order with each theme forming a miniature work that elides into the next. Further, each section features a completely different orchestral choir, horns, then bass strings, then woodwinds, the violins, and the final section is for solo piano. He then overlaps sections contrapuntally creating a very complex texture as often seen in Ives. His finale is a philosophical rendering that synthesizes Beethoven's 9th program with his own similar view that man is dispenser of compassion. He also uses similar forces (voice/orchestra) and even quotes Beethoven's opening tutti from the finale of the 9th. Tippett sets three Blues choruses for the first section while the final section's three parts correspond to Beethoven's idealism, man's mercy, and Tippett's philosophy of compassion.

 

 

 

Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Igor Stravinsky
(1882-1971; 1926)

His symphonies, for the most part are neoclassical. They use reduced forces, traditional forms, and are more accessible than works from his other periods. They, therefore, do not represent the innovations which place Stravinsky among the top three of four composers of the 20th century. Without any doubt, The Rite of Spring is one of the most important works of the century. It simultaneously introduced the world to Primitivism and Modernism. The 1913 performance of the ballet became the scene of one of the most riotious premiers in the history of music. Saint-Seans left after the first few notes complaining about the misuse of the bassoon's high register. Parts of the audience immediately began to cough, hiss, and scorn the work while others yelled at them to be quiet. Stravinsky wrote of the fiasco in his 1936 autobiography:

....de Sacre du Printemps was given on May 28 at the evening performance. The complexity of my score had demanded a great number of rehearsals, which Monteux had conducted with his usual skill and attention. As for the actual performance, I am not in a position to judge, as I left the auditorium [i.e., to stand in the wings] at the first bars of the prelude, which had at once evoked derisive laughter. I was disgusted. These demonstrations, at first isolated, soon became general, provoking counter-demonstrations and very quickly developing into a terrific uproar. During the whole performance I was at Nijinsky's side in the wings [Nijinsky was the choreographer]. He was standing on a chair, screaming "sixteen, seventeen, eighteen"--they had their own method of counting to keep time. Naturally, the poor dancers could hear nothing by reason of the row in the auditorium and the sound of their own dance steps. I had to hold Nijinsky by his clothes, for he was furious, and ready to dash on stage at any moment and create a scandal. Diaghilev [the impresario] kept ordering the electricians to turn the lights on or off, hoping in that way to put a stop to the noise. That is all I can remember about that first performance. Oddly enough, at the dress rehearsal, to which we had, as usual, invited a number of actors, painters, musicians, writers, and the most cultured representatives of society, everything had gone off peacefully, and I was very far from expecting such an outburst....(Grove, Stravinsky, Igor)

The riot was loud the dancers couldn't hear the music. Fights broke out in the audience and riots errupted outside the theatre. Stravinsky was 30 years old and was the Paris sensation per his prior hits The Firebird and Petrushka. These two works failed to prepare the audience for the primitivism of The Rite of Spring.

Stravinsky began writing for the Paris Ballets Russes in 1910. In 1939 he came to America because of the war. He wrote in every compositional style: tonal, polytonal, and serialism. His brillant orchestrations began with the tutorage of Rimsky-Korsakov. His personal style was evident from the beginning - especially rhythmically.

His output covers every genre: Opera - The Rakes Progress; Concerto - Dumbarton Oaks; Symphony - Symphony in C or Symphony in Three Movements; Ballets - The Rite of Spring; and Chamber and Choral works of various designs.

He uses additive forms in the ballets which aburptly juxtapose blocks of material. His music more rhythmically than melodically identified. His inspiration came while finishing The Firebird in St. Petersburg. He daydreamt of a solem pagan rite where sage elders, seated in a circle, watched a young girl dance herself to death. They were sacrificing her to appease the god of Spring and that became the essence behind the ballet.

The rhythms, orchestral effects, and harmonic combinations were unheard of at that time. The primitive rhythms and style relate the pegan primitiveness of the ritual quite well. His next period was neoclassical and presented a rejection of programmatic designs and a return to absolute form, balance, and objectivity - but in more modern terms as in Pulcinella. His Orchestral Variations represent his final period which explored the serial designs of Schoenberg and Webern.

His style focuses on rhythm, harmony, and orchestral color. He works to liberate rhythm from the "tyranny of the barline" - the tradition groups of 2 or 3 with accents coinciding with harmonic arrivals. He often introduces a rhythmic pattern and then obfiscates it - as seen in The Rite. Rhythmic polyphony occurs as one line maintains the beat while another plays an irregular rhythmic pattern. Patterns will be juxtaposed creating polyrhythms. Rhythmic motives shift locations (displaced). Rhythm becomes a point of tension and release and works in conjunction with the harmonic design. Silence is a form of rhythm and he uses it to great effect.

His harmonies focus on tonal centers. Ambiguous chords appear as in the second movement of The Rite where an E major chord in the lower strings accompanies an Eb7 chord in the winds. Some analysts have shown that he used a seven note pitch class set in this section. The infamous Patrushka chord juxtaposes two tritone related major triads (C/F#). Areas of tonal ambiguity are common - where the third vacillates between major and minor.

His orchestrations feature unique instrument groupings. Each piece is unique in this way. His orchestral pallet was extensive and striking. His music philosophy advocates the "acceptance of limits as a means to freedom." (Grout, 849).

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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Arnold Schoenberg
Expressionism
(1874-1951; 1910)

Wagner's chromaticism (Tristan) deeply influenced Schoenberg. Strauss' style can be heard in his symphonic poem Pelleas und Melisande (1903). His Gurre-Lieder for five soloists, narrator, four choruses, and large orchestra surpassed the size and complexity of Strauss and Mahler and the expressive character of Wagner. His second period points away from these post romantic trends and towards a new style - serialism. The works from this period are for greatly reduced forces and often explore solo textures. Between 1905 - 1910 he expimented with Pantonality and wrote works of a non-serial design. By 1923, his dodecaphonic theories were thoroughly conceived into what is now commonly called serialism. The chromatic and harmonic degeneration of tonality had been occuring for some time with Wagner, Strauss and others. But these works were still tonally designed and the areas of atonality were brief in comparison. Schoenberg extended Debussy's innovative harmonies to include the emancipation of dissonance - meaning any group of notes could form a chord.

Expressionism, like Impressionism, derives from painting. Impressionism dealt with the outer existence while expressionism focuses on the internal (consider the philosophies of Freud). The expressionist deals with the deep dark secrets of the mind, both conscious and subconscious.

His Theme and Variations for Orchestra (1928) is one of his more influencial serial works. Four tone rows determine the pitch order of the 24 measure melody. The same four rows in retrograde form the accompaniment. Rhythms form an intrigal means of formal cohesion. Schoenberg use of contrapuntal devices: canon, retrograde, inversion, and even passacaglia as the entire row repeats in the bass for the fifth variation, present the neoclassical or even neobaroque elements of his music.

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Chapter 6
The Symphony in the Twentieth Century
Anton Webern
Expressionism
(1883-1945; 1914)

Webern, and Schoenberg's other disciple Berg, form the neoclassic and neoromantic versions of serialism. Webern wrote no vocal works using Spechstimme and worked from an abstract philosophy. Rhythms are complex with numerous duple against triple, textures are thin, and counterpoint, especially canon, appears frequently. His dynamics present a pin-point type of controll - especially the softs. The most noteable aspect of his style is his orchestration of the melody that moves through the orchestral instruments that he called Klangfarbenmelodie. Webern skillfully uses timbres to mitigate dissonances. His music is, on the whole, less dissonant than Schoenberg's - hence the latter's inference that Webern designed tonal rows.

The Symphonie (1928) is cast for nine solo instruments in two movements: a sonata form followed by a theme and seven variations. The prime order of the row begins the work. Contrapuntal devices such as canon, retrograde, and inversion permeate the work. Entire sections are retrograde versions of other sections.


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Study Examples

 

Review Concepts

  1. Be familiar with the composer's midlife dates (flourishing dates). These dates mean more to me, and often synchronize with their most important works and mature style. They also let you place composers "head to head" at the apogee of their career. For instance, Haydn lived much longer than Mozart, and was well his senior, but, their midlife dates are 1770 (Haydn) and 1771 (Mozart).
  2. Every romantic period composer lived in shadow of Beethoven. Discuss how some of them dealt with that specter. Is this why the symphony begins to decline in the romantic period? What others reasons are there?
  3. Be able to discuss the debate of absolute versus programmatic music. Be able to define both terms. Consider Liszt's, Hanslick's and Wagner's own words.
  4. Define idée fix and leitmotif.
  5. Who were the major innovators in regards to form? How did it change?
  6. Who were the major innovators in regards to orchestration? How did change?
  7. Be able to discuss the main style traits for Schubert that cover his continuation of the past (first 6 symphonies) and anticipation of the future (lyrical themes and lyrical 1st theme in sonata form; little counterpoint, if at all; WW intros some primary themes, and use of folk melodies; output - 1st 6 syms. were Haydn/Mozart style; last two innovative; eight complete symphonies).
  8. Discuss Mendelssohn's style and be sure to address his baroque borrowings with specific examples from his Italian (no. 4 - fugal 42 measure dev. that eventually includes 4 voices, classical forms, little chromaticism, conservative tonal scheme), Scottish (motivic designs per Longyear's analysis), or Reformation (no. 5) symphonies. What elements look to the future (waltz nature of his scherzo, some motivic (cyclical) treatment, continuous performance of all four movements (Scottish - no.3) and use of folk melodies. Output - four standard 4 mvmt symphonies and one that combines symphonic and cantata form. Also consider his importance as a conductor/orchestrator and baroque revivalist.
  9. Discuss Schumann's 'lose handling of form' by citing a few specific examples. How does this loosening of form anticipate ensuing romantic trends? How does the continuous nature of the fourth symphony and the motivic designs of both No.4 and No. 1 look back to Beethoven? His programmatic piano works stand in contrast to his intendedly non-programmatic orchestral works..
  10. Berlioz creates the first marquis programmatic work. Discuss his unique orchestration strategies (cross section presentation of accompaniment and melody, 4 note chords in the basses) and special effects (echo, distancing thunder, etc.). Why is his over-the-top reputation largely a myth? How did his designs affect structural tonality and why? Can you discuss earlier programmatic works [Haydn's Le Matin and Beethoven's Pastoral (No.6)]?
  11. Describe how Liszt uses other devices, as did Berlioz, to create structural unity. Be sure to include a careful discussion of thematic transformation and orchestration (hint: Faust III). How is he an extension of Berlioz? How does he differ (think formal design - symphony and sonata)? Does counterpoint really lend itself to programmatic intentions? How often does it appear in Berlioz or Liszt (remember the fugues)? Liszt uses some extended harmonies that anticipate the future: augmented triads in succession, parallel chords, chords moving in chromatic 3rds, etc.
  12. How does idée fixe differ from thematic transformation: Thematic transformation changes themes (multiple themes) to convey a change of that particular theme's character, usually by altering anything (or everything) except the pitch. Themes can represent people, objects, emotions, animals, states of nature, etc. The Idée fixe is similar in concept, except Berlioz uses it as a single permeating thread to unify a work - not multiple idée fixes per se, . Generally the rhythm, tempo, and harmony change while the pitches remain consistent. The next manifestation, Wagner's Leitmotiv, assigns motives to many elements of the program (people, objects, emotions, animals, states of nature, etc.). These motives work to foreshadow, introduce, or reintroduce characters, moods, events, so forth, and are much more specific than their predecessors. Berlioz's idée fix haunts each movement, Liszt's themes represent personalities and their changing states of emotion; and Wagner's Leitmotiv represents virtually any narrative element - and thus need to remain recognizable (not often mutated). All of these cyclical unifying devices - recurring themes or motives - continue ideas found in earlier operas by Mozart (Don Giovanni and Cosi fan tutti), Weber (Die Freischütz), and instrumental works by Beethoven (5th and 7th syms.), Mendelssohn (3rd/4th sym.), and Schumann - and even to some extent, symphonies by Mozart (sym No.40) and Haydn (London sym).
  13. Brahms is known for several things: on the traditional side - being an abstract (absolute) composer, reverting to Beethoven's classical style, incorporating heavy counterpoint, lyrical but motivically sectional themes, and using baroque forms (no. 4, IV); on the progressive side - intricate rhythm schemes (multiple meters, alternating meters, 2 against 3, syncopation, and displaced accents), tonal ambiguity and modality (various keys/modes of E), Mozartian chromaticism (melodic, linear, and harmonic), continuous phrasing (overlapping or elided), plagal relationships, and being friendly with Clara Schumann (oops.).
  14. Tchaikovsky style traits: contrasting tone colors (orchestration) over repeated material mark his style of development (extension) that rarely includes counterpoint. His abundance of tunes, scales, repetition, sequence, color, numerous sections, folk themes, variation, Russian festival finales, waltz, and overlapping expressive climaxes form a uniquely romantic style. Study aspects of his orchestration style (choirs, etc.). How programmatic is his symphonies, compared to his other forms (Symphonic poems, overtures, etc.)
  15. What are Bruckner's Gesangsperiode and Urthema and where do they generally appear? How does he expand the orchestra? How does he use brass differently (themes)? What are some typical traits (length, intro with vague tremolo in strings, developmental internal movements (expansionist), counterpoint (crab), lyrical melodies, orchestral choirs, Wagnerian traits, etc.)
  16. Dvorak's use of folk elements (tunes, rhythm, mode) form his best known trait. His symphonies divide into German models (1, 2, 3, 6, and 7) and folk models (4, 5, 8, and 9). Half of his movements are developmental forms (unlike Tchaikovsky) including Scherzos and some slow movements. He extends themes by spinning them out into longer ideas (sub phrases more than motivically). His developments show his German influences. Some third movements are dance (waltz) types and many finales carry forward the dance nature of the earlier traditions. Review his general traits (given above) in terms of his seventh symphony.
  17. Liszt is credited with creating the symphonic poem. Typically a one movement work. Smetana's Ma vlast is the first symphonic poem cycle (6 symphonic poem set). How does nationalism manifest in the Smetana's collection? Be able to briefly discuss the evolution of the symphonic poem from its earliest beginnings with programmaticism in Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Berlioz through Strauss. Cite major composers, discuss forms or lack of, orchestration, programmatic inferences, orchestration (in general terms), etc. Does the symphonic poem present an evolution of the symphony? If so, how? How long did it last, when did it end and why.
  18. Who are the major figures involved in the evolution of melody, rhythm, orchestration, and harmony. Consider how melody changed from a periodic design per the enlightenment, to a rhapsodic design (Berlioz, Liszt and sym. poem composers), to an endless melody (Wagner), to 20th century pantonal/serial practices per Schoenberg and Webern.
  19. How do composers such as Ives, Copland, Penderecki, Sessions, Zwilich, Ellington, and Bernstein fit into the mix? Do they carve out a new trend, revert to the past, or both.
  20. How does Wagner's concept of Gesamtkunstwerke present the ultimate synthesis of vocal and instrumental genres. Think about why some theorists would call the combination of the two "polyphony." (Frankenstein).
  21. Can you clearly explain the concepts of idée fixe, Thematic transformation, and now, Leitmotiv. Can you provide specific examples? Consider how Liszt transforms the cello theme at the beginning of Mazeppa into a charming D major theme at the end, and, how Wagner's Yearning Motiv in Tristan never resolves until the final chords of the Liebestod. Do you clearly understand how these devices along with the concept of Rhapsodic melody - which is often a spun-out procedure - departs from periodic melodic structures per Beethoven, Haydn, and Mozart.
  22. How does developmental procedure fair after Brahms? Can contrapuntal techniques and rhapsodic (spun out) melody coexist, or are they mutually exclusive? How often do we continue to see countermelody, as opposed other contrapuntal techniques?
  23. How does rhythm evolve in complexity? Consider how rhythm forms the last great frontier in Western Art music. Brahms is a primary rhythmic innovator, but what about Berlioz, Liszt, or even Schumann for that matter. How many themes have had a stronger rhythmic versus melodic identity? Folk rhythms are generally not complicated, Bartok excepted. So, how should we view the rhythms of Wagner, Strauss, Schoenberg, or Harris (polyphrased metrical patterns of 9/4 and 4/2)?
  24. How does Wagner's chromaticism, melodically and harmonically, anticipate Schoenberg and the eventual break down of tonality? (Remember that sonata form is held together by TONAL and THEMATIC strategies.) In the same line, how does Strauss' works (along with the other programmatic composers) push the formal designs of Symphonic form (the four movement work) and sonata form into totally new genres?
  25. Be able to describe symphonic practices in modern era. Can you align composers with specific trends? At times they seem to vacillate from progressive to regressive.
  26. Consider how Debussy's melodies and harmonies differ from past practices. His extensive use of mode and the whole tone scale gives his works a distinctive voice and point away from tonality. His planing, use of parallelism (fourths and quartal harmonies) points back to organum in some ways. (others used mode extensively - Bartok, Stravinsky, Brahms, Ravel, and most nationalistic composers).
  27. Consider how the Cantus Firmus and isorhythmic techniques relate to the serial strategies. Why is it difficult for serialism to work as a four movement symphonic form? Can serialism sustain long movements?
  28. Many modern composers use continuous variation concepts. This often involves a rondo design where returing sections are developed or varied thematically. The technique combines a sense of return and forward momentum. Consider how this concept begins in the scherzo-trios of Beethoven. It can also describe the melodic strategies of transforming themes to some extent. Anytime the composer varies a returning idea (recaps, themes, etc.) the process of continous variation is at work to some degree. You can hear this in the Zwilich excerpt.
  29. How did the voice evolve back into symphonic trends? Be able to discuss Beethoven, Wagner, Mahler, and Ellington. (I realize placing Ellington with these symphonists could be suspect. But his approach is symphonic in several works and thus merits inclusion). In particular, what role does the voice play with these composers? With Beethoven the voice is supported by the symphony. How much instrumental focus occurs in Sym. No.9: IV's variation form? How does Wagner place voice and instrument on more equal footing? What are the responsibilities of the instrumentalists? How does Mahler set the role of the voice? Which movement does it appear? How does he use the orchestra? How does Ellington use the voice, or the other instruments for that matter? Can you explain cross sectional voicing and instrumentalized voice in terms of an Ellington example?

Listening Examples that need to be accurately identified:

  1. Liszt - Mazeppa (ABA)
  2. Strauss - Don Quixote (Theme -Variations)
  3. Wagner - Tristan prelude (ABA)
  4. Smetana - The Moldau (Fantasia)
  5. Franck - Sym. in D minor: I (Sonata Form)
  6. Brahms - (Sym. No.4: IV Passacaglia/Chaconne - Sym. No. 1 Sonata Form)
  7. Mahler - (Sym. No.5: I Large ABA - Sym. No.2: IV - Through composed)
  8. Prokofiev - Symphony No.1 (The Classical Symphony Mvmt I: Sonata form)
  9. Stravinsky - Rite of Spring (Programmatic ballet overture)
  10. Webern Op.21 - Symphonie (Serial)
  11. Schoenberg Varations (Theme only - Serial)
  12. Penderecki - Threnody (Through Composed)
  13. Ives - Putnam's Camp (polytonal and thematic, know about the program, Collage/Pastiche form)
  14. Reigger - Sym. No.3: I (Serial sonata form)
  15. Zwilich - Sym. No. 3: III (3 mvmt symphony. Mvmt III features continuous variations - Rondo)
  16. Ellington - Transblucency (AABA w/ repeated choruses)
  17. Shostakovich Sym.5:I (CD 8)
  18. Harris No.3 (Just use the first 3 minutes) (CD9)
  19. Schuman No.3 Part I Passacaglia and Fugue.(CD9)

Questions to ask while listening and considering style:

  1. When is tonality established? How stable is it?
  2. What type of form is it? Does it project the style of the classical symphony in number of movements and character? How does it deviate from the past, or does it revert to the past?
  3. How is sonata form used? Does the exposition return intact? How is the development designed? Is there an introduction and/or a coda? What type of introduction is it? If so, is it long or short (motto), and what tempo? What type of coda is it? Does it simply restate themes, introduce new themes, or provide more development? How does the nature of the third movement change in its quest for a developmental design: Minuet and Trio becomes Scherzo and Trio -then the waltz, etc. Does it revert back to a dance form (Waltz)?
  4. How are the themes presented? One main and secondary theme? Multiple themes (groups)? Are themes rhythmically/motivically designed or lyrical with sequences? What is the character order (fast/rhythmic then slow/lyric)?
  5. What types of transitions appear? Do they introduce the next idea? Are they modulatory? Are they contrapuntal or lyrical? Are transitions areas of tonal ambiguity?
  6. What developmental strategies appear? Is it contrapuntal: motivic splicing and dicing, imitation, inversion, retrograde, contrary motion, etc.? Is it a lyrical extension by sequencing and repetition? Is it simply more themes? Is it the main theme again? Is development restricted to the "Development" or are themes developed immediately upon introduction? Is the work continuously developed?
  7. How does the composer unify the work? Is it unified tonally? Motivically, Cyclically (motto, idée fixe, Thematic transformation, Leitmotiv)? Thematically, Rhythmically, or Orchestrally? What forms the main unifier?
  8. What type of orchestration is used? Is a simple string quartet design? Are WWs featured? Is there any antiphonal activity between choirs, or soloists and choirs? Any new instruments? Any unusual use of instruments? Any cross sectional voicings? Who introduces the themes? How are brass and percussion used?
  9. How is rhythm used? In many ways rhythm has been neglected in the face of melody and tonality. It forms the last great frontier in Western music. Are the rhythms rather bland? Dancelike? Syncopated? Displaced? Complex?
  10. How is meter conveyed? Or is it? Are there complex metric schemes, alternating meters and so forth?
  11. How is accent and stress used? Does it displace the beat?
  12. Is there a program? If so, can you hear it? If you can hear it, how does it manifest?
  13. We don't have to like every work we hear, but we do have to understand EXACTLY why we do or do not like a particular piece. For instance, instead of saying "I hate that piece," one might say, "the themes are poorly designed, the transitions lose forward momentum, the orchestration works against itself as the brass accents overpower the melodic ideas, there's no sense of structure or unity," etc... Knowing why you like what you like helps you find more of what you like. Also, understanding why you don't like something often forms a bridge toward respecting it, and better helps you to tolerate it.

Interpolate Longyear with Liszt and Brahms forward - get Bach chaconne to hear beside Brahms No.4 IV.

Ives article on past music and why few modern composers are performed (save for 20th c. chapter)

Find a recording of the Beethoven 7th symphony's Finale Irish theme.

Industrial revolution per Yudkin book.

Beethoven performance in Lexington.

Copy Symphonie fan. out of Yudkin book.

Copy: "Cyclic Form and Tonal Relationships in Mendelssohn's "Scottish" Symphony," In Theory Only, IV (1979), 38-48.

Remember to do review concepts for Ch. 3

Beethoven issues with hearing loss, Heiligestadt testament, darkness to light: beginning vs. ending keys. The birth of the modern composer separate from performer and conductor.

 

First Quiz:

T F The romantic period is the high point of the concert symphony - both in sheer number and popularity.

Who is the earliest instrumental symphony composer? (hint: 'now that's Italian')

What is Empfindsamer stil and how does it differ from Sturm und Drang?

What is the difference between an 'absolute' and a 'programmatic' symphony?

How did orchestration change over time: from baroque to classical to romantic to modern?

What's the difference between idée fixe and leitmotif? Who invented each?

T F Haydn wrote symphonies with programmatic content.

Haydn is mainly know for what kind of symphonic style?

Mozart is mainly know for what kind of symphonic style?

How does a composer design a development section?

How has development as a technique changed from preclassical through Beethoven symphonies

What is scherzo?

How has the purpose for symphonic style music changed from baroque to classical to romantic to modern?