Lecture:

What are the 2 main components of cell membranes? What are the functions of cell membranes? What is rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum? What are the functions of endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes? Where are lysosomes made? What is the function of mitochondria, ribosomes? What is transcription, translation? What are the roles of the following in protein synthesis: DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes? What is the most abundant substance in a cell? What are monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides? What is the basic structure of a triglyceride? What is the basic subunit of proteins? What are the 2 major types of proteins? What is the difference between passive & active processes of moving materials across membranes? What simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport? What is a carrier? Which of these processes require energy, carriers? Which of these processes can move substances from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration? What is endocytosis, exocytosis? What is ATP, ADP? What is oxidative phosphorylation & where does it occur? How many ATP are produced when 2 hydrogens go completely through oxidative phosphorylation? What processes or reactions provide hydrogens for oxidative phosphorylation? What are the products of glycolysis? What are the products of the reaction that converts pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA? What are the products of the Kreb's cycle? How many ATP are produced from the complete breakdown of glucose (total, directly, & via oxidative phosphorylation)? How are fats used to produce ATP? What is beta oxidation? How are proteins used to produce ATP? What is glycogenesis, glycogenolysis?

What are the roles of sodium & potassium in the establishment of the resting membrane potential? What is an action potential? What occurs during depolarization, repolarization? How does membrane permeability to sodium & potassium change during an action potential? What is the threshold potential? What is the all-or-none law? What is the absolute refractory period, relative refractory period? How does an action potential become a nervous impulse? What is saltatory conduction & what are the advantages of this type of conduction? What is a dendrite, axon? What is a synapse & how do impulses travel across a synapse? What are the 2 main divisions of the nervous system & what are the subdivisions of each? Know the main functions of: medulla, pons, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, cerebral cortex, limbic system. What are the main functions of the spinal cord? What is gray matter, white matter? What type of neurons are somatic afferent (SA) fibers? Where are the cell bodies of SA fibers located? Do SA fibers enter the cord via the dorsal or ventral root? What do somatic efferent (SE) fibers innervate? Where are the cell bodies of SE fibers located? Do SE fibers leave the cord via the dorsal or ventral root? Where do visceral afferent (VA) fibers originate? What type of neurons are VA fibers? Where are the cell bodies of VA fibers located? Do VA fibers enter the cord via the dorsal or ventral root? What do visceral efferent (VE) fibers innervate? Where do the 1st VE neurons originate? Where do the 2nd VE fibers originate? Where are the cell bodies of the 1st & 2nd VE neurons located? Which of the 4 types of fibers are part of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)? What are the 2 divisions of the ANS? Where does each division leave the central nervous system? What is a preganglionic neuron, postganglionic neuron? What are cholinergic fibers, adrenergic fibers? Which fibers in the ANS are cholinergic & which are adrenergic? What are the general functions of the 2 divisions of the ANS?

What is a fasciculus (or fascicle), muscle fiber, myofibril, myofilament, transverse tubule, sarcomere, z-line? What is the sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum? What is the sliding-filament theory? What is the role of each of the following in skeletal muscle contraction: sarcolemma, T-tubule, sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium, troponin, tropomyosin, actin, cross-bridges, ATP? What is an isotonic contraction, isometric contraction? What is motor unit summation, wave summation, tetanus? What is multiunit smooth muscle, unitary smooth muscle? Which types of muscle have t-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum? What is the source of calcium in skeletal muscle, smooth muscle?

What are the 3 formed elements in blood? Which of these have a nucleus? What is the typical concentration of RBCs? What is the hematocrit? Which formed element contains hemoglobin? What is erythropoiesis & where does it occur? How does hypoxia stimulate RBC production? What is oxyhemoglobin, reduced hemoglobin, carbaminohemoglobin? Know each type of white blood cell, whether it is granular or non-granular, and its main function(s). What is phagocytosis, diapedesis, ameboid motion, chemotaxis? How & where are platelets formed & what is their function? How is a platelet plug formed? What is the role of each of the following in blood coagulation: prothrombin activator, prothrombin, thrombin, fibrinogen? What is fibrinolysis? What is a thrombus, embolus?

What are the 2 major targets of our body defense system? What are the 4 nonspecific immune responses? What initiates the inflammatory response & what is the role of histamine in inflammation? How does interferon 'interfere' with viruses? What is the function of natural killer cells? What activates the complement system? What cells are responsible for humoral immunity, cell-mediated immunity? What do B cells & T cells act against? What is an antigen? What causes B cells to become plasma cells or memory cells? What are the 5 subclasses of immunoglobulins & what is the primary role of each? What are the 3 ways in which antibodies provide protection? What is the primary response, secondary response? What is active immunity, passive immunity? What are the 3 types of T cells & what is the role of each? How do cytotoxic T cells destroy target cells? How are helper T cells activated? What are the 4 cytokines secreted by helper T cells & what is the function of each?

Which antigens & antibodies are present in Type A blood, Type B blood, Type AB blood, Type O blood? Why are individuals with Type O blood referred to as universal donors? Why are individuals with Type AB blood referred to as universal recipients? What is erythroblastosis fetalis & how can it occur?

Review Questions - Text (Fox, 10th edition):

Chapter 11 - What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary (pars distalis), what is the "target tissue" of each, & what is "stimulated" by each (p.320-321; Table 11.6)? What two hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary & what is the function of each (p.321-322)? What are the 3 functional categories of corticosteroids secreted by the adrenal cortex & what is the function of each (p.326-327)? What hormones are produced by the adrenal medulla & what effects are caused by each (p.328)? What are the general functions of the thyroid hormones (thyroxine & triiodothyronine) (p.330)? What hormone is secreted by the parathyroids & what is its function (p.332)? What are the islets of Langerhans (p.334)? What are the 2 types of cells in the islets & what hormone does each type secrete (p.334)? What stimulates the secretion of each of these hormones & what is the function of each hormone (p.334-335)?

Chapter 17 - What does a nephron consist of & what is its function (p.562)? What are glomeruli (p.564)? What are peritubular capillaries (p.564)? What are the components of the tubular portion of a nephron (p.564)? What structure surrounds the glomerulus (p.564)? KNOW that filtrate passes from the glomerular capsule into the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). Why do cells lining the PCT have microvilli (p.564)? What is reabsorbed by these cells (p.564)? KNOW that the fluid passes from the PCT to the LOOP OF HENLE then to the DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (DCT). KNOW that the DCT drains into a COLLECTING DUCT (see Figure 17.5 on p.563). What can pass from the blood plasma to the inside of the capsule & the lumen of the nephron tubules (p.565)? What is the glomerular filtration rate (p.566)? What happens to most of the filtered water (p.566)? How much urine do the kidneys normally excrete per day (p.569)? What is reabsorption (p.569)? How does the transport of water always occur (p.569)? What percentage of the filtered salt and water is reabsorbed in a constant fashion in the early regions of the nephron (proximal tubule and loop of Henle)(p.570)? KNOW that the osmosis of water out of the tubules occurs because the surrounding tissue is hypertonic (has a very high concentration of salt). Also KNOW that the tissue fluid is hypertonic because sodium is actively transported out of the ascending limb of the Loop of Henle & into the tissue fluid. Because the walls of the ascending limb are NOT permeable to water the tubular fluid becomes increasingly dilute (hypotonic) as it ascends toward the cortex, whereas the tissue fluid becomes increasingly more concentrated (hypertonic) (p.571-573). KNOW the material under the section "Collecting Duct: Effect of Antidiuretic Hormone" (pp.573-576).

Chapter 18 - What is the esophagus & how is food pushed from one end of it to the other (p.601-602)? What are the 4 functions of the stomach (p.602)? What are the 6 types of cells that make up the gastric glands & what does each secrete (p.603)? To what degree are each of the following digested in the stomach: proteins, carbohydrates, fats (p.605)? What enzyme is responsible for the partial digestion of proteins (p.605)? Why can absorption occur at a rapid rate in the small intestine (p.607)? What happens to absorbed monosaccharides & amino acids (p.607)? What is absorbed in the large intestine (p.611)? What is contained in pancreatic juice (p.618)? Where does most starch digestion occur (p.626)? Where does most protein digestion occur (p.626)? KNOW that most fats are digested in the duodenum (1st section of the small intestine).

Review Questions - Text (Fox, 9th edition):

Chapter 11 - What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary (pars distalis), what is the "target tissue" of each, & what is "stimulated" by each (p.312-313; Table 11.6)? What two hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary & what is the function of each (p.313)? What are the 3 functional categories of corticosteroids secreted by the adrenal cortex & what is the function of each (p.319-320)? What hormones are produced by the adrenal medulla & what effects are caused by each (p.320)? What are the general functions of the thyroid hormones (thyroxine & triiodothyronine) (p.322)? What hormone is secreted by the parathyroids & what is its function (p.325)? What are the islets of Langerhans (p.326)? What are the 2 types of cells in the islets & what hormone does each type secrete (p.326)? What stimulates the secretion of each of these hormones & what is the function of each hormone (p.326-327)?

Chapter 17 - What does a nephron consist of & what is it responsible for (p.552)? What are glomeruli (p.552)? What are peritubular capillaries (p.552)? What are the components of the tubular portion of a nephron (p.552)? What structure surrounds the glomerulus (p.552)? KNOW that filtrate passes from the glomerular capsule into the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). Why do cells lining the PCT have microvilli (p.553-554)? What is reabsorbed by these cells (p.554)? KNOW that the fluid passes from the PCT to the LOOP OF HENLE then to the DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (DCT). KNOW that the DCT drains into a COLLECTING DUCT (see Figure 17.5 on p.553). What can pass from the blood plasma to the inside of the capsule & the lumen of the nephron tubules (p.555)? What is the glomerular filtration rate (p.557)? What happens to most of the filtered water (p.557)? How much urine do the kidneys normally excrete per day (p.558)? What is reabsorption (p.559)? How does the transport of water always occur (p.559)? What percentage of the filtered salt and water is reabsorbed in a constant fashion in the early regions of the nephron (proximal tubule and loop of Henle)(p.560)? KNOW that the osmosis of water out of the tubules occurs because the surrounding tissue is hypertonic (has a very high concentration of salt). Also KNOW that the tissue fluid is hypertonic because sodium is actively transported out of the ascending limb of the Loop of Henle & into the tissue fluid. Because the walls of the ascending limb are NOT permeable to water the tubular fluid becomes increasingly dilute (hypotonic) as it ascends toward the cortex, whereas the tissue fluid becomes increasingly more concentrated (hypertonic) (p.560-562). KNOW the material under the section "Collecting Duct: Effect of Antidiuretic Hormone" (pp.564-566).

Chapter 18 - What is the esophagus & how is food pushed from one end of it to the other (p.590)? What are the 4 functions of the stomach (p.590)? What are the 6 types of cells that make up the gastric glands & what does each secrete (p.592)? To what degree are each of the following digested in the stomach: proteins, carbohydrates, fats (p.593)? What enzyme is responsible for the partial digestion of proteins (p.593)? Why can absorption occur at a rapid rate in the small intestine (p.594)? What happens to absorbed monosaccharides & amino acids (p.595)? What is absorbed in the large intestine (p.598)? What is contained in pancreatic juice (p.608)? Where does most starch digestion occur (p.615)? Where does most protein digestion occur (p.615)? KNOW that most fats are digested in the duodenum (1st section of the small intestine).

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