Lecture

What is bone & how is it formed? What is a blastema? What is membrane bone, replacement bone? What is intramembranous ossification, endochondral ossification? What is the dermal skeleton, endoskeleton? What are the main types of scales, their identifying characteristics, & what groups have or had these various types of scales?

What are the various components of the axial skeleton? What are the various types of vertebrae, their identifying characteristics, & what groups possess each type? What is the neural arch, hemal arch? What is the function of these arches? What are the various types of vertebral processes & what is(are) the function(s) of each? Know the characteristics of the vertebral columns of cartilaginous fishes, teleosts, & lungfishes. Characterize the "vertebral column" of agnathans. What are the characteristics of the cervical region of the vertebral column of amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals? What is the atlas, axis? What is(are) the function(s) of the atlas, axis? Which groups possess an atlas & axis? What is a transverse foramen & what is its function? Which vertebrae have tranverse processes? What are dorsal vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae? Which groups of vertebrates have dorsals, thoracics, & lumbars? What are the characteristics of the sacral region of the vertebral column of amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals? What is the sacrum, synsacrum? What are the characteristics of the caudal region of the vertebral column of amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals? What is the pygostyle, coccygeal? What is a hypocentrum, pleurocentrum? What is a rachitimous vertebra? What are the evolutionary trends with regard to hypocentra, pleurocentra?

Characterize the ribs of fishes, tetrapods. What are dorsal ribs, ventral ribs? What are thoracic ribs? What are vertebral ribs, sternal ribs, floating ribs? What is an uncinate process & which groups possess such processes? What is the function of uncinate processes? Which groups possess a sternum? What is(are) the function(s) of the sternum? What is the keel & which groups possess sternums with a keel? What is the function of the keel?

What are the 3 components of the typical vertebrate skull? What is the function of the neurocranium (or endocranium)? What is the prechordal cartilage, parachordal cartilage? What is the basal plate, ethmoid plate? What is the olfactory capsule, otic capsule? Be able to describe the growth & development of these components of the cartilaginous neurocranium (i.e., what fuses with what, etc.). What is the fate of the cartilaginous neurocranium in cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, & other bony vertebrates? What are the 4 major ossification centers of the neurocranium in bony vertebrates? How many bones are derived from the occipital ossification center? Which tetrapods possess one occipital condyle, two occipital condyles? Know that the dermatocranium includes: 1) the bones that form a roof over the brain & contribute to the lateral walls of the skull, 2) the bones of the upper jaw, 3) the bones of the palates, and 4) the opercular bones. What are fontanels? What is the fate of the first upper jaw (palatoquadrate cartilage) that develops in the embryos of cartilaginous fishes, bony vertebrates? What is a primary palate, secondary palate? Which groups have a secondary palate? Which bones typically help form the secondary palate? What is the significance of the secondary palate? What is the function of the opercular bones of bony fishes & what is the fate of the opercular bones in tetrapods?

Be able to describe the structure of the seven visceral arches of cartilaginous fishes. Which arch makes up the jaws of cartilaginous fishes? Which cartilage forms the upper jaw, lower jaw? What is the derivation of the articular & quadrate bones of bony fishes & other bony vertebrates? What are the 3 types of jaw suspensions in fishes & what is the role of the hyomandibula in each? Which groups possess each type of jaw suspension? What is the fate of the palatoquadrate cartilage in amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals? What is the fate of Meckel's cartilage in amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals? What is the fate of the rest of the visceral skeleton in tetrapods? What is the probable origin of the lower jaw & how has the structure of the lower jaw changed in bony vertebrates? What is(are) the main change(s) in the lower jaw of tetrapods going from the "primitive" groups to mammals?

What are the components of the appendicular skeleton? Which groups of vertebrates lack an appendicular skeleton? What is the function of the pectoral girdle? What were the components of the pectoral girdle in early fishes & how has that changed in later bony fishes? What general changes have occured in the pectoral girdle of tetrapods? Specifically, what is the typical fate of the coracoids & clavicle in the tetrapod pectoral girdle? What are the components of the mammalian pectoral girdle? What is the function of the pelvic girdle? What are the dermal components of the pelvic girdle? What is the structure of the pelvic girdle of fishes? What are the components of the tetrapod pelvic girdle? What is the acetabulum, pubic symphysis? What changes have occurred in the evolution of the pelvic girdle of anurans, birds, mammals? What is the marsupial bone?

What is the main function of fins? What are the three types of fins & what is the general structure of each? What are the five segments (& respective skeletal components) of the anterior and posterior limbs of tetrapods? Which groups have lost both pairs of limbs? How does the limb orientation of "advanced" tetrapods differ from that of "primitive" tetrapods? How much variation is there in the humeri, radii, and ulnas of tetrapods? What are the three components (& their respective skeletal components) of the manus (hand)? What modifications has the manus undergone in the evolution of flight (birds, bats, & pterosaurs), swimming, running, & grasping? What is plantigrade, digitigrade, unguligrade & which groups exhibit these conditions? How variable are the femurs, tibias, and fibulas of tetrapods? What is the patella? What are the various hypotheses concerning the evolution of fins? How were limbs thought to have evolved?

Text (Kardong, 2nd edition)

Chapter 7

    What are the differences between the exoskeleton and the endoskeleton (p.222)? What are the 3 parts of the vertebrate skull (p.223)? What is the neurocranium (p.223)? Among vertebrates, what are the functions of the splanchnocranium (p.225)? In which groups did jaws first appear and how did these groups use jaws (p.227)? Phylogenetically, how did the dermal bones of the skull arise (p.229)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.1 (Getting a Head; p.232-233). What is cranial kinesis (p.234)? Which groups have kinetic skulls & which groups do not (p.234)? What are the advantages of cranial kinesis (p.234-235)? What are the advantages of akinetic skulls (p.235)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.3 (Striking features of snakes; p.254).
    What problems & opportunities are presented by the high viscosity of water (p.266)? What methods are used by suspension feeders to intercept & gather nutrients traveling within streams of water (p.266-267)? What is suction feeding (p.267)? How do suction feeders eliminate excess water (p.267)? What is lingual feeding, prehension (p.267-268)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.4 (p.270-271). Know the material in the section entitled 'Evolutionary Modifications of Immature Forms: Akinesis in Mammals' (p.271-273).
 

Chapter 8

    What was the original function of vertebrae & what are some, later, additional functions (p.275)? What are the basic components of vertebrae & what is the function of each (p.275)? What are the regions of the vertebral column in most fishes, in tetrapods (p.276)? What is a rhachitomous vertebra (p.276)? What is holospondyly (p.276)? What is an intervertebral disk (p.278)?
    What are ribs & what are the functions of ribs (p.278)? What are true ribs, false ribs, floating ribs (p.279)? What is a vertebral rib, sternal rib (p.279)? What are uncinate processes and why are the important (p.279)? What are the functions of the sternum (p.279-281)? What is a rib cage (p.281)? What is a carina, which groups have it, & what is its function (p.281)? Which groups of vertebrates have a sternum (p.281)? What are gastralia, where are they located, which groups have them, & what is their function (p.281)? What are the various types of tails & which fish have each type (p.285-288; Fig. 8.21 - p.288)?
    For an active aquatic organism, what 2 problems are uppermost & what are the 'answers' to these problems (p.295)? What is the 'nodal' (p.297) & what happens in the mammalian vertebral column where the nodal occurs (p.297)? What often happens in vertebrates with heavy bodies (p.297)? What does the relatveily undifferentiated vertebral column of fish reflect (p.300)?  What are the functions of the vertebral column in fish, tetrapods (p.300)? Why have ribs been lost in the lumbar region of the vertebral column in some vertebrates (p.302)? How does the bird vertebral column exhibit 'a close match of form and function' (p.302)?
 

Chapter 9

    In sharks, what do pectoral fins do (p.307)? What conditions favored the evolution of the first paired fins (p.307)? What functions were served by the associated girdles (p.307)? Be able to briefly describe the theories concerning the evolution of fins (gill-arch theory & fin-fold theory) (p.307-310). What changes in the appendicular skeleton occurred as vertebrates moved to terrestrial environments (p.315)?
    How did early rhipidistians likely use their lobe fins (p.322)? What advantages might there have been for rhipidistians that left their aquatic world & ventured onto land (p.325-326)? Know the various modes of locomotion on land (p.327). What us an animal's gait (p.327)? What is a diagonal gait (p.327)? What is belly-walking & why is this mode of locomotion energetically expensive (p.328)? In early tetrapods, how were limbs placed & how was locomotion accomplished  (p.329; Figure 9.31 - p.331)? What present-day groups still depend on this type of locomotion (p.329)? What have many later tetrapods developed & what is the benefit of this change in posture (p.329-330)? Know the material in Box Essay 9.1 (p.328-329).
    What is the speed or velocity attained by a vertebrate a product of (p.332)? What are two ways to increase stride length (p.333)? What are the various ways by which stride rate can be promoted or increased (p.333)? Be able to explain how the horse & cheetah differ in terms of the ways in which they attain high speed locomotion (p.334-335).
    Which groups of vertebrates exhibit (or exhibited) true powered flight (p.335)? What are the functions of a bird's primary feathers, secondary feathers (p.336; Figure 9.43 - p.338)? How does the type of flight influence wing shape (p.338; Figure 9.48 - p.341)?
    What is fossorial locomotion (p.342)? What are 3 adaptations of the appendicular skeleton for fossorial locomotion (p.342)?

Text (Kardong, 3rd edition)

Chapter 7

    What are the differences between the exoskeleton and the endoskeleton (p.232)? What are the 3 parts of the vertebrate skull (p.233)? What is the neurocranium (p.233)? Among vertebrates, what are the functions of the splanchnocranium (p.236)? In which groups did jaws first appear and how did these groups use jaws (p.237)? Phylogenetically, how did the dermal bones of the skull arise (p.240)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.1 (Getting a Head; p.242-243). What is cranial kinesis (p.244)? Which groups have kinetic skulls & which groups do not (p.244)? What are the advantages of cranial kinesis (p.244-245)? What are the advantages of akinetic skulls (p.245)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.3 (Striking features of snakes; p.265).
    What problems & opportunities are presented by the high viscosity of water (p.277)? What methods are used by suspension feeders to intercept & gather nutrients traveling within streams of water (p.277-278)? What is suction feeding (p.278)? How do suction feeders eliminate excess water (p.278)? What is lingual feeding, prehension (p.278-279)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.4 (p.280-281). Know the material in the section entitled 'Evolutionary Modifications of Immature Forms: Akinesis in Mammals' (p.281-284).
 

Chapter 8

    What was the original function of vertebrae & what are some, later, additional functions (p.287)? What are the basic components of vertebrae & what is the function of each (p.287)? What are the regions of the vertebral column in most fishes, in tetrapods (p.287)? What is a rhachitomous vertebra (p.287)? What is holospondyly (p.288)? What is an intervertebral disk (p.289)?
    What are ribs & what are the functions of ribs (p.289)? What are true ribs, false ribs, floating ribs (p.290)? What is a vertebral rib, sternal rib (p.290)? What are uncinate processes and why are the important (p.290-291)? What are the functions of the sternum (p.291)? What is a rib cage (p.291)? What is a carina, which groups have it, & what is its function (p.291)? Which groups of vertebrates have a sternum (p.291)? What are gastralia, where are they located, which groups have them, & what is their function (p.291)? What are the various types of tails & which fish have each type (p.299; Fig. 8.20 - p.300)?
    For an active aquatic organism, what 2 problems are uppermost & what are the 'answers' to these problems (p.307)? What is the 'nodal' (p.308) & what happens in the mammalian vertebral column where the nodal occurs (p.309)? What often happens in vertebrates with heavy bodies (p.309)? What does the relatveily undifferentiated vertebral column of fish reflect (p.312)?  What are the functions of the vertebral column in fish, tetrapods (p.312)? Why have ribs been lost in the lumbar region of the vertebral column in some vertebrates (p.313)? How does the bird vertebral column exhibit 'a close match of form and function' (p.314)?
 

Chapter 9

    In sharks, what do pectoral fins do (p.319)? What conditions favored the evolution of the first paired fins (p.319)? What functions were served by the associated girdles (p.319)? Be able to briefly describe the theories concerning the evolution of fins (gill-arch theory & fin-fold theory) (p.319-322). What changes in the appendicular skeleton occurred as vertebrates moved to terrestrial environments (p.327)?
    How did early rhipidistians likely use their lobe fins (p.337)? What advantages might there have been for rhipidistians that left their aquatic world & ventured onto land (p.337-338)? Know the various modes of locomotion on land (p.339). What us an animal's gait (p.339)? What is a diagonal gait (p.339)? What is belly-walking & why is this mode of locomotion energetically expensive (p.341)? In early tetrapods, how were limbs placed & how was locomotion accomplished  (p.341; Figure 9.31 - p.341)? What present-day groups still depend on this type of locomotion (p.341)? What have many later tetrapods developed & what is the benefit of this change in posture (p.341)? Know the material in Box Essay 9.1 (p.342-343).
    What is the speed or velocity attained by a vertebrate a product of (p.344)? What are two ways to increase stride length (p.344-345)? What are the various ways by which stride rate can be promoted or increased (p.345)? Be able to explain how the horse & cheetah differ in terms of the ways in which they attain high speed locomotion (p.347).
    Which groups of vertebrates exhibit (or exhibited) true powered flight (p.348)? What are the functions of a bird's primary feathers, secondary feathers (p.348-349; Figure 9.43 - p.349)? How does the type of flight influence wing shape (p.351; Figure 9.48 - p.352)?
    What is fossorial locomotion (p.354)? What are 3 adaptations of the appendicular skeleton for fossorial locomotion (p.355)?

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