Lecture

What are the 4 characteristics shared by all vertebrates? What are the oldest known vertebrates & when do they occur in the fossil record? What present day organisms probably resemble these early soft-bodied vertebrates? What characteristics of these
organisms are probably similar to those of the early vertebrates? What is the relationship between hemichordates & chordates?
What present day groups are thought to resemble the invertebrate ancestors of vertebrates? What are the arguments supporting echinoderms as being similar to our invertebrate ancestors? What are the nine vertebrate classes? What are the major differences between agnathostomes & gnathostomes? What are the 2 living groups of agnathans?  What features characterize the
chondrichthyes, elasmobranchs, osteichthyes? What are the ray-fins, lobe-fins? What is the evolutionary significance of the crossopterygians? What are the labyrinthodonts & why are they significant in terms of vertebrate evolution? What is the significance of the cotylosaurs? What are the 5 subclasses of reptiles? What is the evolutionary significance of the therapsids? Which group of reptiles gave rise to birds? What are the 2 subclasses of mammals? How do the 2 subclasses of mammals differ?

What is intramembranous ossification, endochondral ossification?What are the main types of scales, their identifying characteristics, & what groups have or had these various types of scales?

What are the various components of the axial skeleton? What are the various types of vertebral processes & what is(are) the function(s) of each? What is the atlas, axis? What is(are) the function(s) of the atlas, axis? Which groups possess an atlas & axis? What is a transverse foramen & what is its function? Which groups of vertebrates have dorsals, thoracics, & lumbars? What is the sacrum, synsacrum? What is the pygostyle, coccygeal? What is an uncinate process & which groups possess such processes? What is the function of uncinate processes?

What are the 3 components of the typical vertebrate skull? What is the function of the neurocranium (or endocranium)? What is the fate of the cartilaginous neurocranium in cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, & other bony vertebrates? Which tetrapods possess one occipital condyle, two occipital condyles? Know that the dermatocranium includes: 1) the bones that form a roof over the brain & contribute to the lateral walls of the skull, 2) the bones of the upper jaw, 3) the bones of the palates, and 4) the opercular bones. What are fontanels? What is the fate of the first upper jaw (palatoquadrate cartilage) that develops in the embryos of cartilaginous fishes, bony vertebrates? What is a primary palate, secondary palate? Which groups have a secondary palate? Which bones typically help form the secondary palate? What is the significance of the secondary palate?

What is the fate of the palatoquadrate cartilage in amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals? What is the fate of Meckel's cartilage in amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals?

What are the five segments (& respective skeletal components) of the anterior and posterior limbs of tetrapods? How does the limb orientation of "advanced" tetrapods differ from that of "primitive" tetrapods? What modifications has the manus undergone in the evolution of flight (birds, bats, & pterosaurs), swimming, running, & grasping?

What is skeletal muscle, striated muscle, smooth muscle, involuntary muscle, cardiac muscle? What is metamerism? Which groups exhibit metamerism? What are the epaxial muscles, hypaxial muscles? What are the major differences between the appendicular muscles of fish & tetrapods? What is(are) the reason(s) for such differences?

What are the main constituents of teeth? What is the general trend among vertebrates in terms of numbers of teeth,
distribution of teeth within the oral cavity, & degree of permanence? What is homodont dentition & which groups exhibit such dentition? What is heterodont dentition & which groups exhibit such dentition? What are the various types of teeth found in groups that exhibit heterodont dentition & what is the general function of each type of tooth?

What are the various functions of vertebrate tongues? What is the glottis, epiglottis? Which groups possess an epiglottis & what is its function? What is(are) the function(s) of the vertebrate stomach? What is(are) the function(s) of the vertebrate intestine? Which groups have a spiral valve & what is its function? Which groups have ceca associated with their digestive tracts & where are ceca located?

What are the main organs for external respiration in adult vertebrates? Which groups have a swim bladder? Which groups do not? What is the principal role of the swim bladder? What are 3 other functions of swim bladders?

What are the main structures of the fish heart & what is the pathway of blood through these areas? What is the role of the atrium, atrioventricular valve, ventricle, conus arteriosus, semilunar (conal) valves? Which group(s) have a bulbus arteriosus? What is the difference between the conus arteriosus & the bulbus arteriosus? What are ventricular trabeculae, which groups have them, & what is their function? What is the spiral valve, which groups have it, & what is its function? In which amniotes do you find a complete interventricular septum? What is the role of the ventricular trabeculae in keeping the oxygenated & deoxygenated blood separate? How does the spiral valve help keep the oxygenated & deoxygenated blood separate? Which reptiles have a complete interventricular septum? Which reptiles have a foramen of Panizza? Where is the foramen of Panizza located & what is its function? When a crocodilian is breathing, which arches carry oxygenated blood, deoxygenated blood? How does the left aortic arch carry oxygenated blood even though it emerges from the right ventricle? When a crocodilian is under water, how is blood flow through the arches altered? How does this change occur? What is the advantage of this change in blood flow?

How does the circulatory system of a mammalian fetus differ from that of adults? At birth, what is the fate of the ductus
arteriosus, foramen ovale, umbilical vein, ductus venosus?

What is the archinephros? What is the pronephros, pronephric duct? What is the fate of the pronephros? What is the mesonephros, mesonephric duct? In which vertebrate groups is the mesonephros the functional adult kidney? What is the opisthonephros? In which vertebrate groups is the mesonephros an embryonic kidney? What is the metanephros
& in which groups is it found? What is the value of the tetrapod urinary bladder?

What is the function of male intromittent organs? Which vertebrate groups have intromittent organs? Which group of vertebrates have claspers & what is their function? Which amniotes have an unpaired erectile penis? What is the corpus spongiosum & corpus cavernosa & what is their function?
 

Text - Kardong,  2nd edition

Ch. 2 -  Why are protochordates important (p.52)? What are the 3 groups of protochordates (p.52)? Why are hemichordates called hemi- or half-chordates (p.52)? What is the evidence that echinoderms were the likely chordate ancestors (p.71-73)? What are the arguments against the 'echinoderm-to-chordate' hypothesis (p.74)?

Ch. 3 -  Know the materials in Box Essay 3.3 - Dinosaurs: Heresies and Heresay - The Heated Debate (p.108-109).

Ch. 7  - In which groups did jaws first appear and how did these groups use jaws (p.227)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.3 (Striking features of snakes; p.254).
 
Ch. 8 - What are true ribs, false ribs, floating ribs (p.279)? What is a vertebral rib, sternal rib (p.279)?
 
Ch. 9 - Be able to briefly describe the theories concerning the evolution of fins (gill-arch theory & fin-fold theory) (p.307-310). What changes in the appendicular skeleton occurred as vertebrates moved to terrestrial environments (p.315)?
    What is the speed or velocity attained by a vertebrate a product of (p.332)? What are two ways to increase stride length
(p.333)? What are the various ways by which stride rate can be promoted or increased (p.333)? Be able to explain how the horse
& cheetah differ in terms of the ways in which they attain high speed locomotion (p.334-335).
    Which groups of vertebrates exhibit (or exhibited) true powered flight (p.335)? What are the functions of a bird's primary
feathers, secondary feathers (p.336; Figure 9.43 - p.338)?

Ch. 10 - What are electric organs & how many species of fish have such organs (p.346)? What are the various functions of electric organs (p.346)?

Ch.13 -  What is the GI tract (p.472)? What are carnassials, which mammals have them, & what is their function (p.482)? What are the three successive parts of the small intestine (in some vertebrates)(p.490)? What are some specializations of the alimentary canal that prolong passage of digesta (p.492-495; Fig. 13.27, p.493)?

Ch. 11 - What is respiration, external respiration, internal respiration (p.386)? How do gas bladders differ from lungs (p.389)? How are gas bladders & lungs similar (p.389)? What functions do air-filled sacs serve in fishes (p.399)? Why might a fish require a hydrostatic organ (p.399)? Know the material in Box Essay 11.2 - Blowholes and Breathing (p.402). How does the
respiratory system of birds differ from that of mammals (p.409-410)? What is(are) the likely function(s) of avian air sacs
(p.410-411; Figure 11.36, p.412)?
 

Text - Kardong, 3rd edition

Ch. 2 - Why are protochordates important (p.53)? What are the 3 groups of protochordates (p.53)? Why are hemichordates called hemi- or half-chordates (p.53)? What is the evidence that echinoderms were the likely chordate ancestors (p.73-74)? What are the arguments against the 'echinoderm-to-chordate' hypothesis (p.74-75)?

Ch. 3 - Know the materials in Box Essay 3.3 - Dinosaurs: Heresies and Heresay - The Heated Debate (p.114).

Ch. 7 - In which groups did jaws first appear and how did these groups use jaws (p.237)? Know the material in Box Essay 7.3 (Striking features of snakes; p.265).
 
Ch. 8 - What are true ribs, false ribs, floating ribs (p.290)? What is a vertebral rib, sternal rib (p.290)?

Ch. 9 - Be able to briefly describe the theories concerning the evolution of fins (gill-arch theory & fin-fold theory) (p.319-322). What changes in the appendicular skeleton occurred as vertebrates moved to terrestrial environments (p.327)?
    What is the speed or velocity attained by a vertebrate a product of (p.344)? What are two ways to increase stride length
(p.344-345)? What are the various ways by which stride rate can be promoted or increased (p.345)? Be able to explain how the
horse & cheetah differ in terms of the ways in which they attain high speed locomotion (p.347).
    Which groups of vertebrates exhibit (or exhibited) true powered flight (p.348)? What are the functions of a bird's primary
feathers, secondary feathers (p.348-349; Figure 9.43 - p.349)?

Ch. 10 - What are electric organs & how many species of fish have such organs (p.359)? What are the various functions of electric organs (p.359)?

Ch. 13 - What is the GI tract (p.489)? What are carnassials, which mammals have them, & what is their function (p.500)? What are the three successive parts of the small intestine (in some vertebrates)(p.508)? What are some specializations of the alimentary canal that prolong passage of digesta (p.510; Fig. 13.27, p.510)?

Ch. 11 - What is respiration, external respiration, internal respiration (p.400-401)? How do gas bladders differ from lungs (p.403)? How are gas bladders & lungs similar (p.403)? What functions do air-filled sacs serve in fishes (p.414)? Why might a fish require a hydrostatic organ (p.414)?  Know the material in Box Essay 11.2 - Blowholes and Breathing (p.417). How does the respiratory system of birds differ from that of mammals (p.424-425)? What is(are) the likely function(s) of avian air sacs (p.425-426; Figure 11.36, p.427)?

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