Instructor: Gary Ritchison
E-mail: gary.ritchison@eku.edu
Course syllabus: Click here!

Scientific writing is NOT a science. There are no proven theories or testable hypotheses.

Scientific writing:

• is a SKILL that must be developed through practice. Good writers never cease learning.
• should inform the reader.

• instructor of a class
• advisor & committee
• seminar audience
• attendees at scientific meeting: state, regional, national, or international
• readers of theses
• readers of scientific journals: state, regional, national, or international
• educated public

Before writing a scientific paper, determine:

1. Who is going to read this paper?

2. Why are they going to read it?

The audience influences style!! For example, how would research on avian mating strategies be presented to an ornithological journal, to a departmental seminar audience, & to a local bird club??

This course will focus primarily on writing for others in the profession, i.e., on writing publications for the primary literature. The primary literature includes:

1) state, regional, national, & international professional journals
2) conference proceedings (if edited or peer-reviewed)
3) annual reviews
4) some books (if edited & containing original results)
5) theses & dissertations
6) technical reports of government agencies or private organizations
7) on-line journals (if edited or peer-reviewed)

1) the 1st publication of original research results,

2) in a form in which peers can repeat the experiments & test the conclusions (i.e., methods & results included),

3) in a journal or other form readily available within the scientific community (i.e., the PRIMARY LITERATURE)

1) textbooks & lab manuals (not original results),

2) review papers that summarize & interpret primary literature,

3) some books (unedited or not containing original results),

4) articles in popular magazines (e.g., Natural History, Audubon, & Scientific American)

5) scientific encyclopedias & dictionaries

The relative ‘prestige' of journals in the primary literature varies:

1) Nature & Science
2) "Top" national/international journals in particular fields
3) "Lesser" national journals in particular fields
4) Regional journals (e.g., the Southeastern Naturalist)
5) State journals (e.g., the Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science)

The format of publications in these various journals varies but, wherever a paper is submitted, an author should strive to write the best paper possible. How do you get a paper published?

1) Submit your manuscript to the editor of a journal (making sure you've followed the journal's guidelines)
2) The editor sends the manuscript to 2 - 4 reviewers
3) The editor reads the manuscript, evaluates the reviews, & may then:

• accept the manuscript for publication with few or no changes
• ask the author(s) to make certain changes (ranging from minor to substantial) &, after resubmission, decides whether or not to publish
• decide that he or she likes the study (or the data) but the changes needed are so substantial that, upon resubmission, the manuscript must once again be sent to reviewers
• reject the manuscript

5) Editor assigns manuscript to particular volume &, at the appropriate time, sends it to the publisher.

6) About 2 - 3 months before that volume is to be published, the author receives page proofs (manuscript in form that it will appear in the journal). The author carefully reviews proofs to make sure there are no typos or other problems. A limited number of changes can be made in the manscript at this point but the authors must pay for any changes not the fault of the publisher. The author is also informed about page charges at this point & the availability of reprints.

7) Manuscript is finally published.

Is good writing important?

Active biologists write papers for the primary literature, but they also write lots of other things such as lectures, poster presentations, grant proposals, resumes (or vitae), letters (e.g., of application & recommendations), memos, & progress reports.

Others who read these make judgements about you based on the quality of your writing. How does a poorly written letter of application affect your chances of getting a position? What chance does a poorly written proposal have of getting funded? What chance does a poorly written manuscript have of being accepted for publication? Obviously, good writing is very important!
 

How does one become a good 'scientific writer?'

• examine how other scientists write (by studying their publications)
• become familiar with the basic 'rules'
• submit your work for review!

In BIO 801, you'll be writing a research proposal, a research paper, an oral presentation, and a poster. You'll also be reviewing several manuscripts. Your proposal, paper, presentation, and poster will be based on a 'study' of your choosing. This 'study':

1) will not actually be conducted, but will be based on data (unpublished) obtained from me, your advisor, or some other faculty member. In the real world, of course, a study is proposed, then conducted (and data are collected). However, because one semester simply isn't enough time to propose a study and actually conduct the research, you will 'propose' a study that has already been conducted.

2) will be the focus of most of your writing in this course. And, you'll be reading and writing (and re-writing) about it all semester!! So, it's very important that you choose a topic of interest to you. I'd be happy to provide some ideas and I'd also encourage you to discuss ideas with your advisor or other faculty members (or other graduate students).

• e.Quest
• Check textbooks (including literature cited sections)
• Scan journals in basement of library
• Check with advisor, other faculty, & other grad students
• FirstSEARCH
• Zoological Record
• BioOne 

To obtain books and journal articles that the EKU library doesn't have, use InterLibrary Loan!!

Reading & Citing the Scientific Literature

• Research is published as journal articles or papers
• Articles are factual & explanatory but, often, are also persuasive. Authors attempt to persuade readers that what they've done is valid & useful.
• Common format consists of 4 standard sections (IMRAD):
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• plus a Literature Cited section
• Each section plays a part in supporting the larger argument of the whole paper
• Papers written using the IMRAD format consist of 2 sections that describe the study (Methods & Results) framed by 2 sections that place the work in the context of previous knowledge (Introduction & Discussion). FRAMING SECTIONS and DESCRIBING SECTIONS use different verb tenses:

• Framing - often use present tense if reporting common knowledge or an important, well-known, and agreed upon principle (e.g., "The availability of suitable nest sites is known to influence screech-owl populations.") BUT use past tense if referring to findings of particular researchers (e.g., "Ritchison (1992) suggested that screech-owl populations may be limited by the availability of suitable nest sites.")
• Describing - typically use past tense to describe actions already taken and data already collected (e.g., "We located nests by observing the behavior of female chats." or "Adult chats fed nestlings at an average rate of 3.5 times per hour.")

Reading Scientific Papers

1 - Acquire some background knowledge

Papers are written for a relatively specialized audience & assume some knowledge of the subject matter & vocabulary. So, you may wish to start by reading appropriate sections in texts, scientific encyclopedias, popular science magazines (e.g., Scientific American) & books (i.e., books on specific topics written for a non-specialized audience), or review papers.

Review papers provide historical perspective, summarize contributions of influential researchers, & often point out where additional work is needed. The Literature Cited sections of reviews are an excellent introduction to the primary literature of a particular field. Reviews may occasionally appear in many journals and some publications specialize in review papers (e.g., the Annual Review series).

Provides a summary of the paper & should help you decide whether to read the rest of the paper.

Read the Introduction. Why was the study conducted? What hypotheses were being tested (i.e., what were the objectives)?

Understand the experimental design, use of controls, sampling techniques, or other methods related to specific objectives. Generally, you need not understand the precise details. If necessary, go back to the Methods section after you understand the major findings and conclusions.

• Don't panic if you don't understand some of the details (e.g., the statistical analyses).
• Focus on main qualitative findings, them move on to more difficult material.
• It may be helpful to read through the Discussion & then return to the Results.
• Don't overlook Figures & Tables.

• Do the data support the conclusions?
• What does the author believe is the primary contribution of the study?
• How do the conclusions relate to your research interests or to your particular study?
• Specifically, do the author's conclusions in any way agree or disagree with yours?

• You may miss important details with a single reading.
• You may gain new insight into a paper if you come back to it at a later date & after becoming more familiar with the subject.

• copying an author's exact words & putting them in your paper without quotation marks
• using wording that is very similar to that of the original source, but passing it off as entirely your own (the most common type of plagiarism)

9 - If a paper is relevant, get complete bibliographical information [author(s), date (year published), title, publisher or journal, volume, page numbers, & editor (if in an edited volume)] & either send for a reprint or make a photocopy.

10 - Develop a system for keeping track of all your references. For example:

• Index cards
• Bibliographic management software, e.g.:
• Manuscript Manager (Pergamon Software, Maxwell House, Fairview Park, Elmsford, NY 10523)
• ProCite (Personal Bibliographic Software, Inc., P.O. Box 4250, Ann Arbor, MI 48106)
• EndNote (Niles and Associates, 2200 Powell, Suite 765, Emeryville, CA 94608-1809)

GUIDELINES FOR BETTER SCIENTIFIC WRITING

Avoid wordiness

1) Omit unneeded words; shorten wordy phrases. Here are some examples of sentences with unneeded words; edit to make them more concise.

2) Use active voice (but not excessively)

Passive: Most seedlings were eaten by rabbits.
Active: Rabbits ate most seedlings.

Passive: Territory size was found to vary with population density.
Active: Territory size varied with population density.

Passive: From field observations, it was found that all radio-tagged individuals remained on the study area.
Active: Field observations revealed that all radio-tagged individuals remained on the study area.

Passive: Several marking techniques were used on the birds.
Active: I used several marking techniques on the birds.

Pronoun Reference (identification of a pronoun with its intended antecedent). Make sure all pronouns can be easily identified.

Unclear: Northern Cardinals have been studied by ornithologists for several years. They typically initiate breeding behavior in March.
Better: Studies by ornithologists have revealed that Northern Cardinals typically initiate breeding behavior in March.
Even better: Northern Cardinals typically initiate breeding behavior in March.

Faulty: Farrar and Calie (1998) examined the foraging behavior of House Sparrows. They reported that their diet consisted primarily of seeds.
Better: Farrar and Calie (1998) examined the foraging behavior of House Sparrows, and found that sparrows fed primarily on seeds.
Even better: House Sparrows fed primarily on seeds (Farrar and Calie 1998).
 

The size of all territories was [not were] reduced at high population densities.

The dominant male, along with his subordinates, defends [not defend] the den site.

The color and shape of the beak are [not is an] important taxonomic features [not feature].

Avoid repetition - Some sentences or paragraphs are wordy because the writer includes the same information twice. For example:

Wordy: In Cupp's study, he found that temperature had no effect on display rates (Cupp 1993).
Concise: Temperature had no effect on display rates (Cupp 1993).

Wordy: The opossum is of moderate economic importance according to Hamilton (1988), who reviewed the importance of the opossum in detail.
Concise: Opossums are of moderate economic importance (Hamilton 1988).

Make sure paragraphs are coherent units of thought.

Paragraphs should be logically constructed passages organized around a central idea often expressed as a topic sentence. A writer constructs, orders, and connects paragraphs as a means of guiding the reader from one topic to the next, along a logical train of thought. Topic sentences often occur at the beginning of a paragraph, followed by material that develops, illustrates, or supports the main point.
 

Vary your sentences.

Pay attention to the structure, length, and rhythm of your sentences. If your writing is unvarying and one-dimensional, you will not get your message across as effectively. For example, the following paragraph is dominated by short, choppy sentences:

Many doves exhibited 'nest-calling' behavior. They assumed a position with the tail and body axis pointing slightly upwards. In this posture, they flicked their wings. This behavior was observed in both sexes. It was especially common in males. I saw it performed both on and off the nest.

Many doves, especially males, exhibited 'nest-calling' behavior both on and off the nest. During this display, doves assumed a position with the tail and body axis pointed slightly upwards and flicked their wings.

Be careful about using nouns as adjectives:

Beginning writers frequently use nouns (sometimes proper nouns) as adjectives. For example:

Gray (1997) found that Red-winged Blackbird females were less vocal during the pair-formation period.


This would be better as:
 

Gray (1998) found that female Red-winged Blackbirds were less vocal during pair formation.

Use commas and hyphens correctly, use numerals correctly, & use the correct tense.

WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS

Most research requires some funding! Cost and quality are not necessarily correlated; low-budget research can be high-quality research! But, it's nice to get some financial assistance even for low-budget projects.

Requests for funding are called GRANT PROPOSALS. Research can also be supported by CONTRACTS, e.g., USDA Forest Service or the Kentucky Department of Fish & Wildlife Resources may provide funds to perform work that they specify. The researcher is contracted to perform specific work. Grants are usually awarded on a competitive basis, while contracts often are not.

A grant proposal must convince readers that the work will be valid AND that the granting agency should pay for it! Grantsmanship is the 'art' of getting financial support for your research.

Some possible sources of funding for Master's students:

1 - Sigma Xi
2 - American Museum of Natural History (behavioral & ecological research)
3 - Kentucky Academy of Science
4 - American Society of Plant Taxonomists

Before preparing and submitting a proposal to a particular funding source, be sure you know the answers to these questions:

1 - Do they fund research in my area?

2 - If so, what is the duration of funding and how much will they provide?

3 - Who can apply (i.e., are you eligible?)

4 - What is the deadline for receipt of proposals?

5 - What is the required format? (Formats do vary among funding sources.)

Factors important in writing a quality proposal:

• Is it an original idea? Would it cause a reviewer to say to themselves 'Why didn't I think of that?'
• Does the author demonstrate a thorough knowledge of the field?
• Is the study well-designed with appropriate methodologies?
• Does the description of Methods demonstrate the technical competence needed to successfully carry out the project?
• Is the proposal well-written? Does it look good?

Who reviews proposals?

• Varies among granting agencies but always involves peer review.
• Proposals are often sent out for review to experts in the field (but may undergo initial review by 'generalists' before going to experts).
• Some agencies (e.g., NSF) use panels of experts that collectively evaluate proposals (although grants may be reviewed before going to the panel).

• abstract or summary
• table of contents
• body of proposal (introduction & methods)
• complete budget (&, sometimes, budget detail sheets)
• biographical information about investigator
• approval form or letter from an institution's animal care committee

The BODY (Introduction & Methods) of the proposal remains rather consistent:

• Explain the background & rationale for the project by surveying the literature, summarizing the current state of the field's knowledge on the topic, & showing how the proposed work will further that knowledge
• Explain the purpose, significance, & specific objectives of the proposed research
• Describe, in detail, the methodology to be used and, if necessary, explain the rationale behind these methodological choices

"The main body of the proposal should be a clear statement of the work to to undertaken and should include: objectives for the period of the proposed work and expected significance; relation to longer-term goals of the primary investigator's (PI) project; and relation to the present state of knowledge in the field, to work in progress by the PI under other support and to work in progress elsewhere. The statement should outline the general plan of work, including the broad design of activities to be undertaken, an adequate description of experimental methods and procedures and, if appropriate, plans for preservation, documentation, and sharing of data, samples, physical collections and other related research products."

Sigma Xi - "Good proposals address an explicit research hypothesis set in the context of a larger theory or model; proposed research methods; the relationship of hypothesis with data to be gathered; and previous work on the topic."
 

Introducing the research problem & objectives

A proposal's introduction will be similar in structure & content to the introduction of a research papers, i.e.:

1) Summarize the current state of knowledge
2) Identify gap, question, or problem that motivates study
3) Provide objective(s) of study

1) proposal readers may represent a more diverse group (including 'generalists' as well as specialists) & 'generalists' may need to be 'educated' about the topic &, specifically, about the significance of your research.

2) you are asking readers not just to 'entertain' your ideas but to invest in them.

• depends on goals & priorities of funding source
• depends on individual reviewers

Specific Aims: All other things being equal, a proposal that is hypothesis-driven is likely to be more favorably received than one that is not. "Fishing expeditions" and primarily "descriptive" proposals are unlikely to be funded. A proposal whose primary aim is to develop a new method will probably not be funded unless subsequent aims within the proposal involve using the method once it is developed. Be sure that you understand--and delineate for the reviewer--the difference between broad, long-term objectives and specific aims.

Providing background information in the Introduction is important in:

• letting readers know how familiar you are with current literature
• letting readers know how well you understand issues & constraints involved in conducting research in this area

"Refer to the literature thoroughly and thoughtfully. Explain what gaps in the literature would be filled by your project. In the past, research proposals have not been funded when applicants seemed to be unaware of relevant published work or when the proposed research or study design had already been tried and judged inadequate."

Background and Significance: In addition to describing the background for the proposal, you must critically evaluate the existing knowledge in the field. To justify the need for the proposed research, you should identify the specific gaps the project is intended to fill and state the importance of the research by relating the specific aims to the broad, long-term objectives. Make it clear which previous work was done by others and which by you, the principal investigator. The citations you choose to include in this section will give the reviewer a sense of your knowledge of the field.

Describing proposed methods

Compared to a journal article, the methods section of a proposal may include fewer details but more explanation of rationale (that is, why this approach, & not others, was chosen).

As a result, the methods section of a proposal should be well-documented (i.e., use references where possible to lend support to your choices). Explaining your methods helps 'generalist' readers understand what's needed to accomplish the project & helps 'specialists' determine whether you understand what's needed to carry out the project.
 

NIH (1993) guidelines:

"While you may safely assume the reviewers are experts in the field and familiar with current methodology, they will not make the same assumption about you . . . Since the reviewers are experienced research scientists, they will undoubtedly be aware of possible problem areas, even if you don't include them in your research plan. But they have no way of knowing that you too have considered these problem areas unless you fully discuss any potential pitfalls and alternative approaches."

• Describe methods in future tense not past tense
• Use subheadings as needed to help readers keep track of the basic components of your methods
• While a proposal may not require as much detail as the Methods section of a thesis or other publication (i.e., sufficient detail to permit replication of the study), you must, as noted above, make sure that reviewers will understand that you understand what's needed to carry out the study. So, at minimum, provide:
• taxonomic information (e.g., subspecies or strains) about organism(s) used
• information about equipment used
• dates & location(s) of study (&, perhaps, why these dates and locations were chosen)
• if relevant:
• duration & timing (e.g., morning or evening) of observation periods
• how animals will be captured & marked
• how focal animals will be selected
• sample size(s) (& why that, or those, sample size(s))
• information about statistical analyses to be used when analyzing results

The Research Proposal Abstract or Summary

• Not always required; needed for longer proposals (e.g., to NSF & NIH)
• When included, serves a number of possible purposes:
• may be used at start of review process in making decisions about possible reviewers
• will be used by reviewers as an introduction to your proposal (& will give them their first impression of your efforts!)
• may be used to publicize an agency's funding decisions. NSF guidelines concerning proposal summaries:
"It should not be an abstract of the proposal, but rather a self-contained description of the activity that would result if the proposal were funded. The summary should be written in the third person and include a statement of objectives, methods to be employed and the significance of the proposed activity to the advancement of knowledge. It should be informative to other persons working in the same or related fields and, insofar as possible, understandable to a scientifically or technically literate lay reader."

The proposal review process exerts substantial influence on the 'direction' of research. For example:

• Requests for Proposals (RFP) - funding agencies encourage research in some areas & not others
• Proposal guidelines ensure that researchers address an agency's goals & priorities
• Selection of reviewers (with their biases & ideas about research priorities) may further direct research into certain areas

Possible concerns about the review process for proposals:

1- Possible favoritism

2 - May discourage research that's out of the 'mainstream' (or, for national funding agencies like NIH & NSF, research that may be considered unpopular with, or even ridiculed by, members of Congress or their staffs or by the media)

3 - Possible misappropriation of ideas

4 - Possible loss of confidentiality
 

Proposal guidelines may include a list of criteria to be used by reviewers:

1) NSF - Merit review criteria:
 
• What is the intellectual merit of the proposed activity?


                  How important is the proposed activity to advancing knowledge and understanding within its
                  own field or across different fields? How well qualified is the proposer (individual or team) to
                  conduct the project? (If appropriate, the reviewer will comment on the quality of prior work.) To
                  what extent does the proposed activity suggest and explore creative and original concepts?
                  How well conceived and organized is the proposed activity? Is there sufficient access to
                  resources?
 

•   What are the broader impacts of the proposed activity?


                  How well does the activity advance discovery and understanding while promoting teaching,
                  training, and learning? How well does the proposed activity broaden the participation of
                  underrepresented groups (e.g., gender, ethnicity, disability, geographic, etc.)? To what extent
                  will it enhance the infrastructure for research and education, such as facilities, instrumentation,
                  networks, and partnerships? Will the results be disseminated broadly to enhance scientific and
                  technological understanding? What may be the benefits of the proposed activity to society?
 

2) Sigma Xi - notes what a "good proposal" addresses

3) Many small grants - no specific guidelines presented

In general, the most important criteria include:

1) scientific merit of proposed work

2) professional competence of researcher(s)

3) relevance of the work to agency's goals

Top reasons why proposals are not funded (from a survey of NIH reviewers):

• Lack of new or original ideas
• Unfocused research plan
• Insufficient knowledge of relevant, published work
• Lack of experience in essential methodology
• Questionable reasoning in experimental approach
• Unrealistically large amount of work
• Lack of sufficient experimental detail

NIH reviewers must officially assign a score to each of five criteria (Significance, Approach, Innovation, Investigator, and Environment) before coming to a decision on an overall score.

• Significance: Will the study move the field forward?
• Approach: Are the experiments you propose sound and technically feasible?
• Innovation: Are your ideas creative? Is your approach novel?
• Investigator and Environment: Can you accomplish your aims, given your training and the resources and collaborations you describe?

Useful links:

    Guide for Writing a Funding Proposal

     Proposal Writer's Guide

Accessing the Biological Literature - Traditional

Start by consulting general references:

1) Current textbooks in area of interest
2) Current books in area of interest
3) Review papers

Use Biological Abstracts & the Zoological Record:

Biological Abstracts:

• published since 1926
• provides nearly 400,000 references to the biological & medical literature every year
• covers nearly 6,500 journals
• abstracts journal articles, notes & short communications, reviews, & meeting reports (but not meeting proceedings)
• one issue every 2 weeks (12 issues, published over 6 months, consitute one volume)
• Cumulative index published each 6 months

Biological Abstracts Coverage:

1) Traditional biology, e.g., botany, ecology, & zoology

2) Interdisciplinary areas, e.g., biochemistry, clinical medicine & pharmacology

3) Related areas, e.g., instrumentation & methodologies

Biological Abstracts:

• references arranged by MAJOR CONCEPT HEADINGS & SUBHEADINGS
• each issue also contains AUTHOR, BIOSYSTEMATIC, GENERIC, & SUBJECT indexes

Five steps for efficient use of Biological Abstracts:

1) Pose the question

2) Identify the Main Subjects & determine the number of years the search should cover

3) Look Up Terms in Appropriate Index(es) (i.e., Author, Biosystematic, Generic, or Subject) & note reference numbers

• Author Index - alphabetical list of all authors in an issue
• Biosystematic Index - list of broad taxonomic groups of organisms
• Generic Index - alphabetical list of specific organisms (genus, species, or subspecies)
• Subject Index - alphabetic list of keywords placed in context with subject terms
4) Compare results of individual indexes - e.g., compare reference numbers from subject index with those in generic index

5) Look up references in reference section

Zoological Record:

• Founded in 1864; oldest & most comprehensive bibliography of the world's zoological literature
• Covers traditional areas of zoology: ecology, physiology, taxonomy, evolution, life history, morphology, & nomenclature
• One volume published every year (July to July)
• Each volume comprises several separately issued sections (most deal with different animal groups, one with general zoological literature, & one lists the new generic & subgeneric names indexed in other sections)
• Available at EKU library - bound volumes for those published prior to 1993 & available on-line for volumes published from 1993 - present.

Zoological Record - Coverage:

• natural biology of animals, excluding humans
• Some primary subjects include
• Behavior
• Conservation
• Ecology
• Evolution
• Feeding
• Genetics
• Morphology
• Physiology
• Reproduction
• Systematics
• Techniques
• Zoogeography
• About 6,500 serials & several hundred books, monographs, & selected dissertations from over 100 countries
• About 75,000 citations added to database/year

Zoological Record - Search Guide

Each section - 5 indexes: Author, Subject, Geographical, Paleontological, & Systematic:

• AUTHOR INDEX - alphabetical order & assigned sequential citation numbers
• SUBJECT INDEX:
• entries listed under headings that most specifically reflects concepts in citation (citations may be listed under more than one heading)
• subjects listed by "CONTROLLED TERM" (Listed in a separate SEARCH GUIDE)
• GEOGRAPHIC INDEX - information on distribution & biology of animals when discussed in a particular geographical location
• PALAEONTOLOGICAL INDEX - lists entries under the heading Geological Time Periods (e.g., Caenozoic, Mesozoic, Palaeozoic, & Precambrian)
• SYSTEMATIC INDEX - entries appear under appropriate taxonomic headings, arranged in hierarchical sequence

OTHER USEFUL SOURCES:

• ABSEARCH (available in SLRC)
• STATE ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE ABSTRACTS ON CD-ROM (available in SLRC)

• EKU Library
• UK Library
• INTERLIBRARY LOAN
• REPRINT CARDS

STAYING 'CURRENT':

• attend professional meetings
• join professional organizations & read their journals
• scan & read current journals in your area of interest
• read reviews

Writing a Scientific Paper

Published papers:

• most common medium used by scientists to communicate findings to the research community
• tell others what an investigator has done &, sometimes, persuade them that the work is valid & useful
• common format is referred to as IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Results, And Discussion)
• Introduction - describes state of knowledge that gave rise to hypothesis being tested (or question being asked) and states hypothesis (or question).
• Methods - describes research design, the methods & materials used, & how findings were analyzed.
• Results - provide data & results of analyses. Tables & figures are often used.
• Discussion
• brief summary of decisive findings & tentative conclusions
• examination of other evidence supporting or contradicting the tentative conclusions
• consideration of how general your conclusions are
• implications for further research.
• Literature Cited - references cited

Introduction - describes current state at start of report; state that created the need for the study

Discussion - describes the 'new' state of the field's knowledge; now that the new results are known

The Title

• may be the most important phrase of a paper; identifies what's important about your paper
• vague or inaccurate titles can waste a reader's time by wrongly suggesting that a paper contains certain information
• many writers compose the title last; you may have a better understanding of the purpose & scope of paper after it's written (it's OK to have a working title; it can be revised later)
• Composing a title:

• Make title informative & specific (i.e., not vague)
• Title should indicate major focus of study; organize title around important, or key, words.

NOT Territorial Behavior of Lizards

BUT Adaptive Significance of Territoriality in Iguanid Lizards

    Be concise & make every word count.

    Omit unnecessary words, e.g., "Studies on . . .", "Observations of . . .", "Investigations of . . .", or "Preliminary Studies on . . .". Words like 'a', 'the', & 'an' are often unnecessary.

    Include appropriate taxonomic information.

    If your work focuses on a particular species or larger taxonomic group, specify this clearly in the title.

NOT Effect of Vitamin B on Gametophyte Development in a Moss

BUT Effect of Vitamin B on Gametophyte Development in the Moss, Pylaisiella selwyni
 

    The abstract is a concise summary of a paper's most important points, and must be able to stand alone (e.g., abstracting services may only provide the title and the abstract). Abstracts must be brief (typically no more than about 5% of the length of the entire paper or, in other words, usually no more than about 250 words). A good abstract should:

• State main objectives. (What did you investigate? Why?)
• Describe methods. (What did you do?)
• Summarize the most important results. (What did you find out?)
• State major conclusions and significance. (What do your results mean? So what?)
• NOT  include references or refer to figures or tables.

Introduction

• Places your work in context & gives readers enough information to appreciate your objectives. A good introduction 'hooks' readers; they become interested in the study & its potential significance.
• May be easier to write after drafting Methods, Results, & Discussion (because you may have clearer understanding of what you are introducing)

1 - Summarize previous knowledge & research

2- Prepare for present research by indicating a gap in previous research or by raising a question about previous research

3- Introduce the present research by stating the objective(s)

These components are sometimes in a different order, one or more may be only implied, some may be made more than once, & some may overlap (e.g., authors may cite previous research while announcing the topic).

Despite variation in length & organization, effective Introductions share the same goal:

Authors want to convince readers that the topic is important & that their work on the topic will advance the field's knowledge.

1) orients reader to the research topic

2) reviews pertinent literature (which helps establish the author's credibility)

3) sets up argument for significance that is a goal of the discussion section (i.e., creates a 'desire' for a solution!)
 

Information is usually presented in past tense, either active voice (I observed focal animals daily . . .) or passive (Focal animals were observed daily . . .). Passive writing has traditionally been used in scientific writing, but active writing is now preferred by many editors.

Check "Instructions to Authors" to determine if active writing is recommended in a particular journal.

When writing with an active voice, avoid using 'I' or 'we' too often. Well-written Methods sections use both active and passive writing.

Include enough information so that the study could be repeated:

• Methodology provides context for evaluating your data
• Credibility of your 'argument' depends, in part, on how clearly & precisely you describe your methods.
• Detailed Methods may be useful to others in your field attempting to repeat your study or conduct similar studies.
• What information should be included?


1 - Materials:

• Complete taxonomic information (e.g., subspecies or strains), on organism(s) used, if relevant, PLUS how, where, & when organisms were obtained. If relevant, also note the following about your organism(s): sex, age, size, physiological state, or rearing conditions.
• Equipment used. Generally refrain from using brand names. If equipment is unusual or not commonly used, it's appropriate to provide name & address of supplier/manufacturer.
• Composition, source, & quantities of chemicals, media, & solutions. Again, if not commonly used, provide name & address of supplier.

2 - Methods - describe procedures in detail.
• For field studies: dates of study, duration & timing (e.g., morning or evening) of observation periods, how animals were captured &, if relevant, marked, how focal animals were selected, etc.
• For lab studies: temperature conditions, photoperiod, pH, criteria used to make measurements, etc.
• When using a method already described in a journal article, you can just cite the reference. If you alter the published methods in any way, changes need to be described in detail.
• Specify where the study was conducted (especially for field studies).
• For field studies, describe features of the study site relevant to your research. This may or may not include information about vegetation, proximity to bodies of water, altitude, climate (or weather), and so on.
• Indicate the statistical procedures used &, if less common procedures are used, provide some explanation & provide references. It is also appropriate to indicate which statistical software (e.g., SAS) was used.

• Order in which information is presented varies. Review lots of Methods sections in journals in your area of study to get a feel for typical format.
• If the Methods section is long & covers different topics, it would probably be wise to use subheadings that clearly break the text into several labeled sections.

Results

Use past tense!

Evidence is presented to address the gap or question noted in the Introduction.

Summarize data & generalize from data! Generalize with explanatory details, statistics, tables, & figures. Point out trends in the data so the readers will see why you drew the conclusions that you did. Relationships between data & generalizations are apparent by observing how tables & figures are referred to:

Tables & figures are important tools for reporting results, but tables & figures only present data; generalizations needed to interpret those data need to be provided in the text. For example, refer readers to a table or figure, then tell readers what patterns to notice.

Integrating quantitative data with the text:

1 - Mean values presented in text should be accompanied by standard deviation or standard error; range may also be presented, if relevant.

2 - When reporting results of statistical analyses, provide the test statistic (e.g., F value, z value, t value, or chi square value), degrees of freedom, and probability level.

3 - Use accepted abbreviations & symbols. These may vary somewhat among disciplines.

4 - Do not begin sentences with numbers. Either write out the number or, better, revise the sentence.

5 - Use the word significant only when reporting statistical significance. Use the word correlated only when two variables are statistically correlated. When results are statistically significant, it is not necessary to use the word significant. And, when not significant, it is not necessary to say results were not significant or did not differ significantly. For example:

Tables & figures - Which should be used to present data? (Useful sources: Tables vs. Graphs & Almost Everything You Wanted to Know About Making Tables and Figures)

Tables - used when exact values are important or when no clear patterns would be apparent in a figure

Figures (graphs) - highlight trends & patterns. Of course, not all figures are graphs. Other types of figures include diagrams, cross-sections, maps, photographs, & flow charts.

 

General guidelines include:

• Each table or figure must be independent (self-explanatory). Readers should be able to understand the information presented without having to refer to the text.
• Table titles & figure captions should be as concise & informative as possible (which helps make them independent).
• Tables & figures must, of course, be referred to in the text and must also be integrated with the text. Do not repeat in the text what is already apparent in a Table or Figure. But, also, do not simply refer to a table or figure without some explanatory text (e.g., Results are shown in Figure 2).
• Check Tables & Figures for agreement with the rest of the paper.

Designing Tables:

• As a rule, don't use Tables unless absolutely necessary. Editors frequently note the high cost of publishing Tables in journals.
• See Chapter 13 of your text for examples of unneeded Tables.

Constructing a table:

1 - Like elements read down, not across.

2 - Words in a column are lined up on the left; numbers on the right (or on the decimal point).

3 - Horizontal lines may (should) be used but rarely are vertical lines used.

4 - Column headings must be brief and precise.

5 - Footnotes may be used for clarification, but should not unnecessarily repeat details provided in Methods section. Tables must be self-explanatory, but need not present details needed to repeat experiment(s).

6 - Table legends go above the table.

Constructing a figure:

• If the data show pronounced trends & promote understanding of the results, and if exact numbers need not be presented & the information cannot easily be presented in the text, use a figure.
• A graph generally is not needed when trends or relationships are not statistically significant.
• Most commonly used figures are bar graphs & plotted points (& lines or curves). When plotting points, be careful about extrapolating!
• Legends should be specific and informative. Do not simply repeat the labels of the two axes as the legend (e.g., Variation in singing rates versus time). Be more descriptive (e.g., Variation in singing rates of male American Robins during the breeding season).
• Make sure lettering & numbers are large enough for photographic reduction (figures submitted for publication are always reduced; sometimes substantially)
• Do not extend axes beyond what the figure requires. To save space, remember that axes need not start at 0 & it's alright to put breaks in axes.
• Be sure axes are labeled.
• Be sure patterns (for bar graphs) or symbols (for points) or connecting lines (between points) exhibit sufficient contrast.
• Do not put too much information in one figure. There are no specific rules, but, in general, you should probably try to avoid more than about four different symbols, lines, or bars.
• When plotting means, indicate variability in data by providing standard errors or standard deviations.
• Figure legends go below the figure.
• Authors submitting manscripts to journals type the figure legends on separate pages, not on the figures themselves.

Discussion

The purposes of the Introduction & Discussion are inversely related. An Introduction introduces the research question & reviews state of knowledge in the field that motivated the question, while the Discussion explains how the question has been answered (at least in part) by the new research & shows how the field's knowledge is changed with the addition of this new knowledge. Interpret your results, & support conclusions with evidence. Tell the readers what your findings mean. Do the data support the original hypothesis? Why or why not? Refer to your data, citing tables or figures where necessary (BUT do not repeat the data!). Discuss the work of other investigators. Are your findings consistent with theirs? How do your results fit into the bigger picture?

Do not present every conceivable explanation. Too much speculation weakens a discussion. Based on your data, pick & support the most plausible interpretations.

Recognize the importance of negative results. Negative results require an explanation, & may provide new insight!

Proceed from the specific to the general (but not too general).

Start by pointing out your major finding(s) (without excessively repeating results). Focus the reader's attention on the most important findings, patterns, or trends.

If there are conflicting or unexpected results, suggest explanations.

Compare your findings with the work of other investigators. Are your results similar? Supplement your own evidence with relevant material from other studies. If other investigators obtained results different from yours, suggest possible explanations for the differences.

End with more general interpretations & conclusions. Can you generalize from your findings to other situations? How does your work contribute to an understanding of the broader topic? Try to end the Discussion with a strong concluding statement.

How do scientists phrase their claims & conclusions in a Discussion? To illustrate, fill in an appropriate word or phrase:

1. Eleven of the trials have shown the treatments to be ineffective, yielding an overall response rate of 4/278 (1.4%). These data ________ that the minimal response rate of interest should be 0.15.

2. These observations ________ that (1) fertilized soils tend to attain apparent equilibrium with orthophosphate solid phases and (2) soils with moderate to high P-fixing capacity tend to have limited movement of P when fertilized with inorganic P sources.

3. Statistical analysis ________ that corn yields were not influenced by the rate of application of nitrogen fertilizer in 1990, but were in 1991 (Table 1). The lack of influence of fertilizer in 1990 was attributed to high levels of native nitrogen in the soil and climatic conditions unconducive to high corn yields (Fig. 2).

4. More recent studies of modern thickly sedimented convergent margins _________ that the Washington margin is anomalous. For example, the Makran (Platt et al. 1985) and Barbados (Westbrook 1982) convergent margins are thickly sedimented and have convergent rates similar to the Washington margin (about 5 cm/yr). However, only the Washington margin is dominated by landward-verging structures.

5. Results of this study __________ that significant genetic divergence has occurred among geographically separated groups of raccoons. The average differentiation among the 14 localities examined (37.4%) is similar to the value obtained among populations of pocket gophers (41.0%; Patton and Yang 1977).

As the above examples probably illustrate, the verbs suggest, indicate, show, & demonstrate are commonly used in scientific writing to make claims and draw conclusions. Such terms carry particular, agreed-upon meanings among scientists, i.e., that an investigator is drawing a conclusion or interpretation of the facts but that the conclusion is not a fact.

Scientists also use other 'qualifiers' to convey the interpretative nature of their claims. For example, adverbs & adverbial phrases are often used to note limitations or special conditions, e.g., possibly, probably, necessarily, presumably, maybe, & as far as we can determine. Such qualifiers indicate the strength or extent of the claim being made. Verbs like may, might, would, could, should, must, & can are also used to indicate qualifying conditions.

Qualifying verbs & adverbs can be used anywhere in the text of a paper where an author needs to qualify or limit their claims. Scientists use them to acknowledge the limitations of their work & to anticipate and head off questions & counterarguments that readers might pose.
 

Acknowledgments

A short acknowledgments section usually comes between the Discussion & the Literature Cited sections. In this section, the author(s) thank(s) anyone or any agency that assisted with the research or writing.
 

Literature Cited

List all references cited in the paper.

Citing sources in the text:

• Acknowledge the source of all material that is not your own.
• The most widely used format is the 'Name-Year System.' A major advantage of this system is that it is more informative; knowing the author and date of publication may be of interest to readers.
• How to cite:

• One author, e.g.:

Farrar (1997) suggested that George W. may be lacking some important brain neurotransmitters.

House sparrows were first observed in Madison County in 1905 (Farrar 1906).

Some journals require a comma between the author and date (Farrar, 1906), but most do not.
 

• Two authors, e.g.:

Cupp and Farrar (1994) proposed that Mitch McConnell evolved from salamanders.

Snow geese consumed all corn east of the Mississippi River during the winter of 1995 (Frederick and Hill 1996).
 

• Three or more authors, e.g.:

Calie et al. (1994) suggested that the University of Florida rarely plays football as well as the University of Michigan.

Crayfish were largely consumed by rednecks (Homo kentuckiensis) during the period from March - June (Farrar et al. 1997).
 

• Two or more papers by same author, e.g.:

Cupp (1990, 1992) indicated that green salamanders lead pretty boring lives.

The intellectual capacity of salamanders and George W. is similar (Kennedy 1992, 1995).
 

• Two or more papers by same author in the same year, e.g.:

McConnell (1999a, b) suggested that liberals have little or no cerebral cortex.

Global warming will be beneficial because heating bills will be lower every winter (Limbaugh 1999a, b).
 

• Two or more papers by different authors, e.g.:

Little is known about the effects of ozone on roadside vegetation (Jones 1997, Creek 1998).

• A direct quote, e.g.;

Farrar (1995:126) confessed that ". . . structural biology is of limited importance compared to ornithology."
 
 
• Papers that you have not read directly. In general, avoid referring to sources you have not read. If, however, an important source is simply not available, specify where you acquired your information about the source, e.g.:

Most Republicans from Texas care little about protecting the environment (Bush 1999, cited in Cheney 2002).

When citing in the text, put references where they make the most sense. Put each citation close to the information you wish to acknowledge. Do not always include citations at the end of sentences, e.g.:

The vocal behavior of Northern Cardinals has been studied both in the lab (Pressman 1986) and the field (McElroy 1996).

Don't overuse citations. Citing a large number of papers may be more confusing than enlightening. Decide which references are most important & use them.

Use correct format in Literature Cited section. Check the Instructions for Authors because different journals use different formats in their Literature Cited sections.

Always check & double-check the Literature Cited section for accuracy, completeness, and consistency!!

• Check that every reference you cite in the text is listed in the Literature Cited.
• Check that no reference appears in the Literature Cited section that is not cited in the text.
• Make sure dates in text match dates in Literature Cited.
• Check all punctuation marks, abbreviations, spacing, & spelling.

Useful links:

Proposal Writing: Internet Resources

Word Usage In Scientific Writing

Writing Exercises for Engineers and Scientists

Writing Resources on the World Wide Web

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